EVIDENCE

S U M M E R 2 0 2 2

MATT E R S Transforming Knowledge Into Housing

and Community Development Policy

/Sarah J Lee

iStock.com

CLIMATE AND HOUSING

IN THIS ISSUE

The Role of Housing

03

Opportunities To Reduce

13

Resiliency at Work

22

in Climate Change

Climate Risks Through

Mitigation and Adaptation

Land Use Regulations

Message From PD&R Leadership

It is my great honor to provide the leadership introduction for this issue of Evidence Matters, which focuses on climate. Climate change is impacting communities across the United States, recently

highlighted by droughts and wildfires in the west and flooding in the east. President Biden made

addressing climate change a priority of his administration. Several days after taking office, the

president released Executive Order (EO) 14008: Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad.

A key objective of the executive order is reducing net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50

percent below 2005 levels by 2030. To accomplish this objective, the president created a National

Climate Task Force, which includes leaders of all federal agencies and is charged with developing

strategies and submitting policy recommendations for addressing the climate crisis, creating more

resilient communities, and strengthening the economy through growth-stimulating measures, including green job creation.

In addition to its contribution to EO 14008, HUD is tasked with addressing related executive orders. The Executive Order on Climate-Related Financial Risk (EO 14030) directs HUD to collaborate with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and the U.S. Department of Agriculture to consider approaches to better integrate climate-related financial risk into underwriting standards, loan terms and conditions, and asset management and servicing procedures. The Executive Order for Advancing Racial Equity and Support for Underserved Communities Through the Federal Government (EO 13985) requires HUD to allocate resources in a way that addresses the historic failure of the federal government to invest sufficiently, sustainably, and equitably in underserved communities, particularly communities of color. The Executive Order Establishing a Federal Flood Risk Management Standard and a Process for Further Soliciting and Considering Stakeholder Input (EO 13690) requires HUD to implement the Federal Flood Risk Management Standard and update HUD’s floodplain management regulations.

At the end of 2021, HUD responded to each of these executive orders in its Climate Action Plan. Among the goals put forward were the following:

n To update programs, policies, and regulations to foster resilient projects, reverse environmental inequities, and ensure environmental justice in future HUD-assisted projects.

n To encourage investments in climate-resilient and energy-efficient retrofits of existing housing, incentivize green building design in new construction, and advance climate mitigation and adaptation strategies across HUD programs.

n To ensure that climate impacts and related environmental justice issues are considered in all HUD-assisted projects and actions by updating environmental review processes and standards through a combination of rulemaking, new guidance and resources, and updates to online tools.

n To help HUD stakeholders identify the most effective climate mitigation and adaptation options by improving access to data, particularly in low-income and minority communities.

HUD also established the Climate and Environmental Justice Council to implement and track progress toward satisfying the Sample text.

Climate

Action Plan. The council is composed of senior management from across HUD’s offices.

Although the Climate Action Plan was established only in November 2021, HUD already has achieved some of its goals.

1 Sample footnote

For example, the Office of Housing has published updated Federal Housing Administration mortgage standards that allow lend-ers to provide a 2 percent stretch on debt-to-income ratios for borrowers purchasing or refinancing a home that meets minimum energy-efficiency standards and that recognize the energy cost savings of a manufactured home with ENERGY STAR® certification when qualifying a borrower. HUD’s Office of Community Planning and Development published a Resilient Building Codes

toolkit for recipients of Community Development Block Grant – Disaster Recovery and CDBG Mitigation funds, and it produced an accompanying webinar series to help HUD customers incorporate resilience measures and stronger building codes when rebuilding after a disaster. My office, the Office of Policy Development and Research, partnered with the U.S. Department of Energy to host departmentwide training on energy efficiency. HUD is also currently working with other federal agencies to implement the Inflation Reduction Act, which is the most significant climate legislation in U.S. history and includes provisions to reduce energy costs for all families and allow owners of HUD-assisted multifamily properties to preserve tens of thousands of affordable rental homes by making them more efficient, healthier, and resilient.

In closing, I will echo Secretary Fudge in saying, “We have a tremendous opportunity to deliver climate justice to disadvantaged communities, lower energy expenses in affordable housing, and accelerate mitigation efforts to protect at-risk communities from natural disasters and the impacts of climate change.” I look forward to working with HUD partners and stakeholders to make this opportunity a reality.

— Solomon Greene, Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Policy Development and Research 2

Editor’s Note

This issue of Evidence Matters covers housing and climate change. In this issue, you will learn about the relationship between climate and housing and the ways we can adapt housing to be more sustainable and resilient to the changing environment.

The lead article, “The Role of Housing in Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation,” discusses the relationship between housing and climate change, including the impact of housing on the environment and HUD’s role in climate mitigation and adaptation.

The Research Spotlight article, “Opportunities to Reduce Climate Risks Through Land Use Regulations,” examines land use regulations and zoning requirements and their effects on the environment and climate mitigation policies.

Common zoning practices such as setback and parking requirements can negatively affect the environment.

The In Practice article, “Resiliency at Work,” highlights a number of climate change initiatives across the United States in response to natural disasters. These efforts include rebuilding projects in Paradise, California; green infrastructure building in New Orleans; and work done in Norfolk, Virginia, to increase environmental justice and resiliency to climate change.

We hope that this issue of Evidence Matters will offer readers an informed and comprehensive review of the relationship between climate and housing. We welcome feedback at www.huduser.gov/forums.

— Sean Martin, Editor

The Role of Housing in Climate

HIGHLIGHTS

ture

Change Mitigation and Adaptation

n Housing intersects with climate change

fea

through its influence on greenhouse

gas emissions and in the ways it both

Climate change poses a grave climate change, exposes its occupants

exposes and protects residents from

the consequences of climate change.

threat to the world, and action to

to climate-change-related hazards

mitigate its effects is urgently needed.

and financial risks, and protects its

n Using energy-efficient construction

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions,

residents from such hazards. Many

methods, adopting electrically pow-

in particular, is necessary to slow the

strategies are available to both com-

ered appliances and heating and

cooling systems, and locating hous-

pace of climate warming. 1 Achieving

munities and individuals to mitigate the

ing near public transit are several

significant reductions in emissions will

risks posed by climate change and to

strategies that can reduce the impact

require altering many aspects of human

increase resilience to future disasters.

of housing on climate change.

activity, including the construction and

energy efficiency of residential housing.

This article examines the ramifications

n Housing and communities can be

designed and built to be more resil-

of housing for climate change, followed

ient to natural disasters, which have

Yet, even as we move to curb the speed

by relevant climate-related HUD initiatives.

become more frequent and severe

of climate change and forestall further

because of climate change.

damage, the dangers of climate change

Climate Change

n HUD can lead by example by promoting

are already apparent in slow-onset

Consequences

energy efficiency and resilience within

disasters such as permafrost melt, sea

The consensus of the international

its own housing portfolio and helping

level rise, drought, and extreme heat

scientific community is that human ac-

localities build for resilience and

as well as the increasing frequency,

tivity, primarily through greenhouse gas

climate adaptation.

severity, and costs of immediate natural

emissions resulting from burning fossil

disasters such as hurricanes, floods, and

fuels, has contributed to the warming

wildfires. A home’s location, materials,

of the planet over the past century.2

agriculture and food security, water sup-

size, design, and construction affect

The sweeping effects of climate change

ply, transportation, energy, ecosystems,

the degree to which it contributes to

include disruptions to “human health,

and others. ” 3 Climate change can stress

3

Climate change has increased the frequency and severity of natural disasters, including severe flooding events, which have also become increasingly costly.

and damage infrastructure systems

How Does Housing Affect

“People may not be aware [of it], but

and ecosystems, make areas less hospi-

Climate Change?

when we use fossil fuels in our homes

table to traditional economic activities

Housing relates to climate change in

[for example, by cooking or heating

such as farming and tourism, and alter

two ways. First, the location, construc-

with natural gas]… we are contributing

energy efficiencies and demands in

tion, and energy consumption of

to climate change.” The good news,

ways that create a vicious cycle. 4 Climate

homes directly affect their contribu-

according to Egger, is that “it’s powerful

change has increased the frequency

tions to greenhouse gas emissions and

to know that if you live in a home, you

and severity of natural disasters, whose

climate change. Second, where housing

can make a difference” in the pace of

aftermaths have also become increasingly

is located and how it is constructed

climate change by making adjustments

costly. Among the many consequences

offer residents varying degrees of

in your everyday home life to use less

of climate change, the United States

exposure to (and protection from)

energy, both through small acts such as

has experienced diminishing water

climate-related risks and hazards.

adjusting or automating a thermostat

quality and supplies; extreme heat and

and through larger changes such as

droughts that have produced longer

The manufacturing, transportation,

converting from gas-fueled appliances

fire seasons and larger wildfires; and

and building processes of the residen-

to electric appliances.10

rising sea levels that, along with coastal

tial construction industry constitute

storms, increase the dangers associ-

approximately 10 percent of total global

The location of housing relative to

ated with storm surges, flooding, and

energy consumption, mostly from

residents’ work and other destinations

coastal erosion.5 Lower-income and

nonrenewable sources. 8 Energy use

and the modes of transportation

other marginalized populations tend to

for those homes, once built, accounts

required and available to make those

be the groups most vulnerable to these

for 19 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas

trips can contribute to greenhouse

changes and the least able to protect

emissions, an amount equivalent to that

gas emissions.11 Research shows that

themselves and recover from their

of the sixth-largest emitting country

“low-density suburban environments

effects.6 These groups also bear the

on Earth. 9 As Krista Egger, vice presi-

generate more emissions than compact

greatest burdens of climate change miti-

dent of Building Resilient Futures at

environments in the same city, and the

gation policies and practices.7

Enterprise Community Partners, says,

more a city is marked by sprawl overall,

4

the more emissions it generates. ” 12 This

that reuse or otherwise recycle demoli-

Laboratory. 26 For example, accounting

relationship is complex, however.

tion and construction waste can lower

for emissions from electricity genera-

According to Jones and Kammen,

energy consumed in the transport of

tion, natural gas combustion emissions,

“Population density does correlate

materials. Using materials that store

and methane and refrigerant leaks, an

with lower HCF [household carbon

carbon dioxide and that have clean

electric heat pump offers a reduced 20-

footprints] when controlling for

production processes can also reduce

year greenhouse gas effect of 53 to 67

income and household size,” but mean

the climate impact of housing construc-

percent, including a 38 to 53 percent

emissions increase until a population

tion.20 Because concrete production

reduction in carbon dioxide emissions,

density of 3,000 persons per square

emits greenhouse gases, alternative

compared with a gas furnace.27 The

mile and then decline as density

materials such as quarry dust, demoli-

potential reduction in emissions is

increases until leveling out at densities

tion waste, copper slag, steel slag, and

greatest if the new electric equipment

of 50,000 persons per square mile.13

fly ash can cut construction emissions.21

is energy efficient, and the shift will be

Across metropolitan areas, the reduced

Other strategies, such as extending the

more cost effective if the equipment is

emissions per household in high-density

life of a building, also reduce overall

incorporated into all new construction

areas often are more than offset by

emissions.22

rather than retrofitted at a later date. 28

higher emissions in the lower-density,

largely suburban areas of the same

Various building methods and materials

Renewable energy sources, such as pho-

metropolitan areas.14 Evidence suggests

can make homes more or less energy

tovoltaic systems or geothermal energy

that increasing the share of multifamily

efficient, and, by extension, generate

accessed by heat pumps, can also power

housing and pursuing efforts to densify

more or less greenhouse gas emissions

homes. To support the adoption of solar

housing could net significant reductions

(see also the Spring 2017 issue of Evidence

and other clean energy sources, the

in emissions. University of California,

Matters). In addition to tight building Biden administration has invoked the

Berkeley professor Daniel Kammen says,

envelopes, buildings that maximize in-

Defense Production Act to authorize

“We now know how to build much

sulation and passive solar gains can be

the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)

greener housing, whether it is single-

more efficient. Homes built to Passive

to expand domestic production of solar

family or multifamily, but the real key is

House design standards combine these

panel parts, building insulation, and

[to] link it smartly to public transit —

features with a heat recovery system

heat pumps. The administration seeks

you can dramatically change the carbon

to minimize heat loss while maintain-

to expand solar manufacturing capacity

footprint and make peoples’ lives

ing comfortable indoor conditions. 23

to levels that would support more than

better. ”15 Transit-oriented development

Innovations in wall assemblies such as

3.3 million homes to convert to solar

can combine greater density, energy-

panels, double-stud walls, and optimal

energy sources each year. 29 “Every bit of

efficient construction, and reduced car

value engineering framing retain struc-

housing, whether it is public or private,

dependence to reduce energy usage

tural soundness while providing higher

should have both solar power and heat

and emissions.16 Yet zoning, regulatory

insulation value, thereby keeping homes

pumps moving forward” with this push,

barriers, and neighborhood opposi-

warmer in the winter and cooler in the

Kammen says.30 Homes that pair onsite

tion remain impediments to denser

summer.24

renewable energy production with

housing, including transit-oriented

energy-efficient design and appliances

development. 17 Trends such as increas-

Another route to reducing the contri-

can produce as much energy as they

ing telework and the unaffordability

bution of housing to climate change is

use over the course of a year; these are

of housing in cities are also reinforc-

to convert nonelectric power sources to

known as net-zero energy homes.31

ing residential patterns in which more

electric for air cooling, clothes drying,

people live in less dense areas. 18

and especially water and air heating

Housing relates to climate change not

and cooking, which remain fossil-fueled

just as a contributor to greenhouse gas

The way housing is constructed can

to a high degree. 25 Shifting to electric

emissions but also as a factor that both

affect its contribution to greenhouse

power for all household systems is an

exposes us to and protects us from

gas emissions. Offsite construction

important component of a broader

climate-related risks, depending on

can streamline processes in ways that

shift to electrification in commercial

where it is sited and how it is construct-

decrease overall energy consumption

and residential buildings, transporta-

ed. Although climate change poses

during construction and produce

tion, and industry that could reduce

increased risks in all locations, some

tighter building envelopes that reduce

fossil fuel combustion emissions by 41

areas face particularly acute increases in

the amount of energy needed to heat

percent from 2005 levels even without

danger. Residential development often

and cool homes (see also the Winter/

reducing carbon in power generation

has occurred in especially vulnerable

Spring 2020 issue of Evidence Matters). 19

and by as much as 74 percent with

places. For example, approximately 5.7

For onsite construction, using local

power system decarbonization, accord-

million U.S. residences are located in

materials and engaging in practices

ing to the National Renewable Energy

areas at risk of flooding and millions

5

more in areas at risk of wildfire. 32 More

are increasingly unsustainable in such

Just as homes, home construction, and

than 40 percent of Americans live in

conditions. Regional collaboration and

housing locations can be modified to

a county that experienced a climate-

planning among state and local govern-

reduce the contributions of households

related disaster in 2021. 33 A 2021 U.S.

ments, Tribal nations, and communities,

to climate change, says Egger, “[t]here

Environmental Protection Agency

along with strategic investments and

are strategies to make homes better

report showed that minority and low-

conservation, are necessary to help these

prepared to withstand the impact of

income populations are more likely to

areas adapt and increase their resilience. 35

climate change. For instance, if you are

live in areas with the highest level of

in an area threatened by floods or sea

climate-related disasters and conditions

Research shows that renters are more

level rise, you can elevate your home

and therefore are more vulnerable to

physically vulnerable to disasters, in

above baseline flood level to prevent

climate-related disasters. According to

terms of both the neighborhoods in

damage or you can construct a roof out

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

which they live and the buildings they

of noncombustible material so that it

Administration (NOAA), in 2021, the

occupy. Renters are disproportion-

won’t burn in the event of a wildfire.

United States experienced 20 natural

ately located in neighborhoods that

There are so many strategies that can

disasters that cost at least $1 billion

have experienced disinvestment, have

be taken. ” 37 Nature-based solutions that

each and $145 billion in total. These

neglected infrastructure, and are in

people can implement at the house-

high numbers reflect a long-term trend:

climate-vulnerable areas. They also

hold or community level include green

after adjusting for inflation, the United

are disproportionately living in older,

infrastructure, which uses natural fea-

States experienced more than twice the

poorly maintained buildings that are

tures such as green space and planted

number of billion-dollar disasters in the

less able to withstand disasters. From

vegetation to help manage stormwater

2010s than in the 2000s.34

2015 to 2017, hurricanes, flooding, and

runoff, and blue infrastructure, which

wildfires, among other disasters, dam-

uses ponds, wetlands, and other water

Another slow-moving disaster rooted in

aged more than a half-million units of

to cool spaces and collect stormwater

climate change is the historic 23-year

rental housing, displacing 324,000 rent-

(see “Resiliency at Work,” p. 22). Building

drought in the Colorado River Basin

ers from their homes. Renters also may

owners can install rainwater collection sys-

and critical drought conditions and low

lack the resources to respond to and

tems, install vegetated roofs, plant trees,

reservoir levels throughout the western

recover from disasters. Furthermore, as

and replace hard surfaces with porous

United States, where, as of June 2022,

Brennan et al. write, “The intersection

ones to aid in cooling and water man-

roughly 93 percent of land is ex-

of economic marginalization, racial

agement. Buildings can also be sited,

periencing drought or abnormally

discrimination, social isolation, poor

landscaped, and oriented to optimize

dry conditions and approximately 70

health, and legal exclusion creates

sun and wind exposure for temperature

percent is experiencing severe or

cumulative vulnerability and means

control. In cold climates, insulation and

extreme drought conditions. Develop-

that both the immediate consequences

double-glazed, low-emissivity windows

ment patterns that promote or depend

of disasters and long-term obstacles to

in homes can reduce heat transfer to

on high-intensity water consumption

recovery are particularly acute for low-

outside.38 Some individuals will be able

in low-resource, arid environments

income renters of color.” 36

to afford to implement these strategies

themselves, with incentives, or with

compensating benefits such as reduced

insurance premiums, but government

programs and subsidies likely will be

needed for these strategies to reach the

lower-income people who are often at

greatest risk.

HUD’s Climate

Change Opportunity

HUD has numerous responsibilities

that could influence greenhouse gas

emissions and energy consumption.

HUD has an extensive portfolio of

assisted housing and properties with

mortgage insurance and establishes the

national code for manufactured hous-

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Flickr

ing. HUD also funds disaster recovery

For areas affected by natural disasters, such as St. Thomas in the Virgin Islands, HUD’s CDBG-DR, CDBG-MIT, and other federal funding streams foster rebuilding that increases resilience to storms.

efforts and community development

6

infrastructure, which offers the agency

an opportunity to promote mitigation

and resilience against the consequences

of climate change. These roles allow

HUD to contribute meaningfully to the

diffuse challenge of climate change. 39

HUD’s portfolio of about 4.5 million

public and assisted housing units generate

an estimated 13.6 million metric tons

of carbon emissions annually. Approxi-

mately 1.2 million of these units are

public housing units over which HUD

has direct influence. 40 The depart-

ment spends $6.9 billion each year on

utilities across its portfolio, an amount

representing 14 percent of its overall

budget. 41 Reducing energy usage in

HUD-assisted housing can reduce these

costs for HUD and benefit households

paying all or a portion of their utility

bills.

HUD also invests Community Develop-

ment Block Grant (CDBG) funds in

community infrastructure, including

$89.8 billion since 1993 in CDBG-Disaster

Recovery (CDBG-DR) grants — of

which a subset is the CDBG Mitigation

Rebuild by Design Hudson River Project

program (CDBG-MIT). Since 2019,

HUD’s Rebuild by Design competition encouraged communities to plan for resilience. One of the winning projects HUD has granted more than $16 billion

seeks to improve storm surge management along the Hudson River in New Jersey.

in CDBG-MIT funds to 22 states and

local governments. One CDBG-MIT

CDBG-DR funds to seven winning pro-

well as 17 local governments affected

project, the Louisiana Watershed Initia-

posals while engaging all participants

by natural disasters. As with Rebuild by

tive, seeks to end unsustainable cycles

in resiliency planning and design. 43

Design, NDRC encouraged data-driven,

of disaster and recovery through flood

One of the winning projects focused

community-led approaches to rebuild-

risk reduction. Using $1.2 billion in

on protecting people and property from

ing so communities can better withstand

CDBG-MIT-funds, the state of Louisiana

storm surges and high tides along the

future disasters.45

is shifting to a watershed-based flood-

Hudson River. The project combines

plain management and mitigation

hard infrastructure, including floodwalls

HUD can also influence energy con-

approach. The state will proactively

and seawalls, and soft infrastructure,

sumption and greenhouse gas emissions

collect data to understand, model, and

such as berms and levees, to serve

in manufactured housing, because it

project flood risks and address them

as a physical barrier to water on the

sets the national building code for this

by shifting development patterns to

coastline. It also improves stormwater

construction. In consultation with HUD,

reduce risk, educating the public about

management with green and grey

DOE recently has updated energy stan-

flood risk, and adopting regional coor-

infrastructure, including green roofs,

dards for some manufactured housing

dination of watershed management. 42

bioretention basins, and swales. The

that will cut energy use and emissions

state of New Jersey received a $230 mil-

and save residents money over the life

In 2013, HUD’s Hurricane Sandy

lion award from HUD to execute the

cycle of the unit through reduced utility

Rebuilding Task Force launched the

project.44 Building on the success of the

costs. 46 Any HUD program that funds

Rebuild by Design competition, an

Rebuild by Design Competition, HUD

investments in new housing or commu-

innovative initiative to promote resilience-

funded the National Disaster Resilience

nity infrastructure, such as the Rental

oriented planning and design strategies

Competition (NDRC), making $1 bil-

Assistance Demonstration program,

in the region affected by Hurricane

lion available to applicants in 48 states,

can incorporate climate mitigation and

Sandy in 2012. The competition awarded

Puerto Rico, and Washington, DC, as

adaptation measures.

7

HUD’s Climate Action Plan

to “implement a broad approach to the

and resilience centered during disaster

Carlos Martín of the Joint Center for

climate crisis that reduces climate pollu-

recovery may present communities with

Housing Studies of Harvard University

tion; increases resilience to the impacts

an opportunity to address slow-onset

notes that integrating climate mitiga-

of climate change; protects public

climate hazards, such as permafrost

tion and adaptation into housing policy

health; delivers environmental justice;

melt, sea level rise, drought, and ex-

can be difficult or even overwhelming,

and spurs well-paying union jobs and

treme heat, that have not traditionally

particularly when considering persistent,

economic growth. ” 48 The plan has three

been declared disasters with accompany-

pressing challenges such as afford-

goals: increasing climate resilience,

ing funding but nevertheless are very

ability. 47 Nevertheless, HUD is acting

reducing greenhouse gases, and pursuing

costly disruptions. 50

to elevate climate mitigation, adapta-

environmental justice.49

tion, and resilience alongside other

HUD can also help individuals and

important goals such as affordability

Increasing Climate Resilience:

communities adapt to climate-related

and fair housing. In keeping with the

HUD and Climate Adaptation

threats by collecting and sharing data

Biden administration’s goal to reduce

HUD, through CDBG-DR, has long

about building- and community-level

greenhouse gas emissions by 50 to 52

assumed a major role in rebuilding

climate risk; conducting and sharing

percent below 2005 levels by 2030, HUD

efforts following disasters. Increasingly,

research on the effectiveness of

and other departments are pursuing a

these efforts have aimed not just to

adaptation and resilience measures;

governmentwide approach to address-

rebuild, but to rebuild in ways that will

assessing climate-related financial risk

ing climate change. In November 2021,

help communities better withstand

and incorporating it into asset man-

HUD announced a climate action plan

future disasters. Being forward looking

agement, underwriting standards, and

HUD Supports Mitigation and Resilience in Tribal Communities

Many Native Americans live in areas that are particularly vulnerable to natural disasters. In 2019, the U.S. Census Bureau created a measure of a community’s capacity to respond to a disaster, the Community Resilience Estimate. Of the eight counties with at least 50 percent of residents deemed “at-risk” according to at least three resilience measures in the Community Resilience Estimate, five include tribal lands (two on the Navajo reservation and one each on the Crow Creek, Pine Ridge, and Cheyenne River Indian reservations), and another, Kusilvak Census Area, has a population that is approximately 90 percent American Indian or Alaska Native. 1 HUD’s Climate Action Plan acknowledges “the history of environmental inequities that has created barriers to achieving climate resilience in Tribal communities.” 2 Inequities can

be quite severe and significantly inhibit climate resilience and general health. For example, many tribal communities have limited access to clean water; approximately 15 percent of Navajo Nation has no access to piped water in their homes. 3

Across several programs, HUD seeks to support tribal communities in increasing climate resilience. HUD’s Indian Housing Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) program provides both competitively awarded single-purpose grants and first-come, first-served “imminent threat” grants to address immediate health and safety threats. 4

HUD’s Office of Native American Programs (ONAP) has funding sources that localities can use for climate change and disaster mitigation initiatives, including energy- and water-efficiency retrofits in HUD-assisted housing. ONAP also gives technical assistance to support sustainable, net-zero buildings and has created a climate resilience and adaptation website that describes funding and other resources to help tribes address climate change. 5

Other federal government programs that offer tribes funding and assistance to increase climate resilience include the Bureau of Indian Affairs’ Tribal Climate Resilience Program (TCRP), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Tribal Green Building Toolkit, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s hazard mitigation assistance grants. 6 In fiscal

year 2021, TCRP awarded nearly $14 million to 79 tribes and 13 tribal organizations for climate adaptation planning and

management.7

Climate Mitigation in Tribal Communities

An award-winning exemplar of climate mitigation, the Puyallup Nation Housing Authority’s Places of Hidden Waters in Tacoma, Washington, provides culturally and environmentally responsive housing for Native American residents. Two 8

lending terms and conditions; and

Consolidated Planning Process to Nar-

Insurance Program’s National Flood

adopting stronger resilience standards,

row the Digital Divide and Increase

Hazard Layer database can help home-

such as flood resilience, for HUD-assisted

Resilience to Natural Hazards,” jurisdic-

owners and communities assess their

and Federal Housing Administration

tions have been required to consider

flood risk. At the community level, plan-

(FHA)-insured properties. 51 HUD’s

how to increase their resilience to

ning can limit or exclude development

Office of Community Planning and

climate-related hazards in their Consoli-

in hazardous places and incentivize

Development (CPD) has created a

dated Plan. 52 Jurisdictions can complete

development in less flood-prone areas.

Community Resilience Toolkit to

some resilience activities at the planning

Policymakers can encourage new de-

help recipients of grants from CPD

level or on a building-by-building basis,

velopment and rehabilitation through

programs, which include CDBG-DR,

whereas others involve changes to com-

incentives to maximize permeable

CDBG-MIT, and NDRC, identify and

munity infrastructure.

surfaces and better manage stormwater.

address climate-related hazards in

Developers can construct individual

their communities. The toolkit offers

Flooding. Climate change may cause

buildings above the floodplain, and

guidance on potential strategies and

inland flooding — resulting from

the utilities; water heaters; and heat-

activities, many of which are eligible for

heavy rains, rapid snowmelt, runoff,

ing, ventilation, and air conditioning

CPD funding. The toolkit covers inland

overwhelmed stormwater management

systems in existing structures can be

flooding, wildfires, drought, sea level

systems, or failing dams or levees — to

moved to a position above the flood-

rise, and coastal storms, among other

become more frequent and happen

plain. Building owners can also install

climate-related threats. Since the 2016

in areas that have not previously been

sump pumps and backflow prevention

HUD regulation “Modernizing HUD’s

prone to flooding. The National Flood

devices. 53

stretches of 10 contiguous townhomes mimic the traditional longhouse form and are oriented to optimize passive solar heating and cooling. Ground-source heat pumps in the first phase of building and a solar installation in the second phase, combined with structural insulated panels forming a tight building envelope, help reduce energy use and the resulting greenhouse gas emissions dramatically. The homes achieved Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design for Homes Platinum certification. 8

Climate Adaptation and Resilience in Tribal Communities

In some cases, the consequences of climate change demand dramatic adaptation measures. On Louisiana’s Gulf Coast, coastal erosion and sea level rise have diminished the Isle de Jean Charles from more than 22,000 acres to only 320

acres. People of American Indian ancestry have made up most of the island’s population, but remaining on the island has become increasingly untenable. In 2016, HUD awarded $48.3 million in CDBG funds to begin the voluntary relocation of residents from the island to places less vulnerable to disaster. The project includes the development of a planned community with more than 500 homes, commercial and retail space, walking trails, and a community center, among other

amenities.9 In this development, which residents named The New Isle, relocated residents will hold a mortgage, one-fifth of which will be forgiven each year for 5 years; residents will not be required to make payments as long as the property remains a primary residence and is insured. 10

Because of the historic environmental inequities and the particular geographic vulnerabilities facing many tribal communities, ongoing support from HUD and other federal agencies is essential to help these communities mitigate climate change and build resilience against current and future climate-related threats.

1 Alex Leeds Matthews. 2021. “Where Americans Are Most Vulnerable to Disaster,” U.S. News & World Report, 13 October.

2 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 2021. “Climate Action Plan,” 33.

3 U.S. Department of Homeland Security. 2021. “National Preparedness Report,” 9.

4 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 2021, 13.

5 “Tribal Climate Resilience and Adaptation,” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development website (www.hud.gov/program_offices/public_indian_housing/ih/

tribal_climate_resilience_and_adaptation). Accessed 16 June 2022.

6 Ibid.

7 U.S. Department of Indian Affairs. n.d. “BIA announces Tribal Climate Resilience Grants totaling $13.84 million awarded for FY 2021,” Accessed 7 April 2022.

8 Jamie Blosser, Nathaniel Corum, Daniel Glenn, Joseph Kunkel, and Ed Rosenthal. 2014. “Best Practices in Tribal Housing: Case Studies 2013,” Prepared for U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, 42–5.

9 “Isle De Jean Charles Resettlement,” Isle De Jean Charles Resettlement website (isledejeancharles.la.gov/). Accessed 15 June 2022.

10 “Resettlement Plan,” Isle De Jean Charles Resettlement website (isledejeancharles.la.gov/resettlement-plan). Accessed 15 June 2022.

9

Louisiana Office of Community Development

With support from a National Disaster Resilience Competition grant, many residents of Isle de Jean Charles, which has suffered coastal land loss from saltwater intrusion, subsidence, sea level rise, and hurricanes, relocated to a more sustainable area that they named “The New Isle.”

Wildfires. The increasing frequency of

shortages, reduced soil moisture, poor

storm surges, and flooding, which, in

storms with lightning, hot temperatures,

water quality, and increased risk of

turn, can exacerbate coastal erosion.

and drought conditions is increasing

wildfires and erosion. Although

Storms bring high winds that can cause

the likelihood of frequent and severe

droughts can occur anywhere in the

damage directly or through the debris

wildfires and a longer wildfire season. 54

United States, they are a particular

they carry. As with floods and fires,

One study predicts that by the middle

threat in the Southwest, Great Plains,

policymakers can discourage future

of the 21st century, areas in the western

and Southeast regions. Individuals and

development in high-risk areas. Coast-

United States may see as much as a

communities can learn about drought

lines can be better protected through

sixfold increase in the number of weeks

indicators in their area from NOAA’s

structural interventions, such as sea

that they could be at risk of large fires.55

National Integrated Drought Informa-

walls and bulkheads, and nonstructural

Even as the risk from fire has increased,

tion System. Communities can explore

interventions, such as wetland protec-

the number of residences in fire-prone

the diversification of their water supply

tion programs. 59 Buyout programs

areas has increased dramatically since

and develop conservation measures.

can reclaim property that has been or

1990. 56 In addition to destroying proper-

They can set criteria for activating

might be developed and instead use it

ties, wildfires pollute the air and can

voluntary or mandatory conservation

for water management or to remove

increase erosion and flooding risks. 57

periods during which nonessential

homes from vulnerable sites.60 As with

Communities can take several actions

water uses are limited. Communities

inland flooding, buildings and utilities

to reduce their risk from wildfires. As

can also adopt incentives for household

can be built or elevated above project-

with flooding, planners can reduce or

conservation efforts such as rain bar-

ed water heights or with open or deep

restrict the construction of housing in

rels, greywater systems, and water-saving

foundations.61

high-risk areas. Individual homeowners

appliances and fixtures.

can use fire-resistant materials such as

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

composite shingles and brick siding,

Sea Level Rise and Coastal Storms.

HUD and Climate Mitigation

install ember-proof vents, remove com-

Sea level rise — resulting from melt-

To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, a

bustible vegetation near the home, and

ing glaciers and ice sheets caused by

goal of HUD’s Climate Action Plan,

keep yards free of debris. 58

climate warming — and the increasing

HUD “must significantly improve the

frequency of coastal storms threaten

energy performance of HUD-assisted

Drought. Extended periods with little

properties and ecosystems in coastal

and FHA-insured assets while scaling up

or no precipitation can lead to water

areas. These areas face higher tides,

deployment of renewable energy… by

10

increasing investments in climate and

Design rating system, and the National

HUD has identified specific initiatives

energy retrofits of existing housing,

Green Building Standard.65

to promote both environmental justice

incentivizing green building design

and climate resilience. HUD will des-

in new construction, and proactively

Pursuing Environmental Justice

ignate resources to provide access to

advancing climate mitigation and adapta-

The goal of pursuing environmental

data, technical support, and funding to

tion strategies across HUD programs.” 62

justice runs through every aspect of

help Tribal communities build resilient

HUD also seeks to create incentives for

the Climate Action Plan. Recognizing

housing and infrastructure (see “HUD

land uses that reduce dependence on cars,

that communities of color, low-income

Supports Mitigation and Resilience in

such as transit-oriented development.63

communities, and historically under-

Tribal Communities,” p. 8). Consistent

served communities disproportionately

with the Section 3 program, HUD

HUD has implemented several pro-

face climate-related risks and hazards,

grantees should recruit low- and very

grams to promote energy efficiency,

are often least able to afford mitiga-

low-income people and HUD-assisted

including voluntary, incentive-based

tion strategies and actions, and could

residents for jobs supporting HUD-

programs as well as mandatory ones.

be negatively affected by mitigation

funded projects, including the green

The Renew300 Initiative encouraged

efforts (for example, escalating rents

job opportunities needed for resilience

managers of federally assisted housing

and home prices in areas that undergo

projects. HUD can also deploy an equity

properties to adopt solar and renewable

mitigation improvements), HUD is

lens to community engagement and

energy, resulting in a commitment from

targeting investments to support these

environmental review processes and

80 owners to install renewable energy

communities with a goal of directing at

practices — for example, to ensure that

sources. Another incentive-based pro-

least 40 percent of federal climate and

people with limited English proficiency

gram, the Green Mortgage Insurance

clean energy investments to disad-

have access to HUD programs and per-

Premium, encourages multifamily

vantaged communities — consistent

sonnel. Finally, HUD can promote the

housing properties with FHA insurance

with the Biden administration’s gov-

development of affordable housing in

to commit to a green building standard

ernmentwide Justice40 Initiative.66 As

areas with fewer climate and environ-

with an ENERGY STAR® score of 75 or

HUD supports climate adaptation and

mental hazards and address longstanding

better and to benchmarking utilities.

mitigation efforts, environmental jus-

environmental hazards, such as lead

Benchmarking utilities, tracking usage

tice — “ensuring equal protection from

contamination, that disproportionate-

statistics, and committing to reduced

environmental and health hazards and

ly affect low-income communities and

energy consumption are central to the

providing equal and meaningful oppor-

communities of color. 70

Multifamily Better Buildings Challenge.

tunity to participate in the decision-making

Ninety-two partners joined the chal-

process to achieve a healthy environ-

Conclusion

lenge, and as of 2020, 70 percent had

ment” — will be a guiding principle. 67

“There is an urgency for acting on

successfully implemented benchmark-

climate change in terms of housing

ing for more than 400,000 units and

Broadly, HUD program participants

given the limited time we have to

facilitated more than 21 trillion British

and grantees are obligated to affirma-

make a difference. We need transfor-

thermal units in energy savings. 64

tively further fair housing, acting to

mative new investment to upgrade

overcome patterns of segregation and

housing, particularly housing for

Rental Assistance Demonstration (RAD)

remove barriers to opportunity for

low-income residents, to meet higher

conversions offer another opportunity

protected classes. 68 As part of the Cli-

standards of energy efficiency,” says

to build for mitigation. RAD projects are

mate Action Plan, in the coming years,

Egger. 71 HUD can lead by example

required to conduct a capital needs

HUD’s Office of Fair Housing and

through changes to the housing over

assessment that analyzes energy- and

Equal Opportunity will identify and

which it has direct or indirect influ-

water-saving systems and to adopt the

share guidance on best practices for

ence and through producing and

most efficient, financially feasible option

community land use, such as zoning

funding research focusing on climate

with a minimum requirement that they

reforms and transit-oriented develop-

mitigation and adaptation for hous-

use ENERGY STAR® and WaterSense®

ment, and on equitable implementation

ing and communities. Communities

products. HUD encourages new construc-

of disaster recovery and resilience fund-

and property owners can immediately

tion in the RAD, Choice Neighborhoods,

ing. The office will also develop online

adopt a number of mitigation and

Section 202 Supportive Housing for the

resources and toolkits on climate

adaptation activities, large and small, to

Elderly, and CDBG-DR programs to meet

resilience and environmental justice

slow climate change, prevent the worst

or exceed green building standards such

and work with HUD’s Office of Policy

of its impacts, and move toward a

as ENERGY STAR for Multifamily High-

Development and Research and Home

more resilient and sustainable future.

Rise, ENERGY STAR® for New Homes,

Innovation Research Labs to develop

“We have the start,” says Kammen.

the U.S. Green Building Council’s Lead-

residential resilience guidelines for

“We just have to do it. ”72

ership in Energy and Environmental

homebuilders and developers.69

11

1 Greenhouse gases are gases, primarily carbon dioxide,

construction,” AIP Conference Proceedings.

Jersey Department of Environmental Protection

methane, and nitrous oxide, that trap heat in the

22 Francesco Pomponi and Alice Moncaster. 2016.

Bureau of Climate Resilience Design and Engineer-

Earth’s atmosphere. Major sources of greenhouse gases

“Embodied carbon mitigation and reduction in the

ing website (www.nj.gov/dep/floodresilience/rbd-

include carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel and

built environment —What does the evidence say?”

hudsonriver.htm). Accessed 10 June 2022.

other combustion; methane emissions from gas fields,

Journal of Environmental Management 181:1.

45 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

and livestock; leaks and releases of hydrofluorocarbons

23 Mirela Mihai, Vladimir Tanasiev, Cristian Dinca,

ment. 2014. “National Disaster Resilience Competition.”

and other refrigerants and chemicals. See “Greenhouse

Adrian Badea, and Ruxandra Vidu. 2017. “Passive

Gas Emissions,” U.S. Environmental Protection

46 Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,

house analysis in terms of energy performance,”

Agency website (www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-

Department of Energy. 2022. “Energy Conservation

Energy and Buildings

greenhouse-gases)

144.

. Accessed 15 July 2022.

Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Manu-

24 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

2 “The Causes of Climate Change,” NASA website

factured Housing,” Federal Register 87:104, 32735.

(climate.nasa.gov/causes/)

ment. 2017. “Leveraging Building Innovations for

. Accessed 18 July 2022.

47 Martín.

Housing Affordability,” Evidence Matters, Spring issue.

3 “Climate Change: Impacts on Society,” U.S. Global

48 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

25

Change Research Program website (www.global-

Krista Egger. 2022. “How Will We Decarbonize Afford-

ment. 2021. “HUD Releases Agency Cllimate Action

change.gov/climate-change/impacts-society).

able Housing?” Affordable Housing Finance, 4 March.

Plan.” 17 November press release.

Accessed 18 July 2022.

26 Daniel Steinberg, Dave Bielen, Josh Eichman,

49

Kelly Eurek, Jeff Logan, Trieu Mai, Colin McMillan,

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

4 “Fourth National Climate Assessment: Volume II:

ment. 2021. “Climate Action Plan, ” 7.

Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States,”

Andrew Parker, Laura Vimmerstedt, and Eric Wilson.

50 Ibid., 13.

U.S. Global Change Research Program website

2017. “Electrification & Decarbonization: Exploring

(nca2018.globalchange.gov/). Accessed 18 July 2022.

U.S. Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in

51 “Climate Resilience and Adaptation,” U.S. Depart-

Scenarios with Widespread Electrification and Power

ment of Housing and Urban Development website

5 “Climate Change: Impacts on Society.”

Sector Decarbonization, ” National Renewable Energy

(www.hud.gov/climate/resilience_and_adaptation).

6 “Fourth National Climate Assessment: Volume II:

Laboratory, 31.

Accessed 31 May 2021.

Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States.”

27 Theresa Pistochini, Mitchal Dichter, Subhrajit

52 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

7 Mariya Bezgrebelna, Kwame McKenzie, Samantha

Chakraborty, Nelson Dichter, and Aref Aboud. 2022.

ment. 2022. “Community Resilience Toolkit.”

Wells, Arun Ravindran, Michael Kral, Julia Chris-

“Greenhouse gas emission forecasts for electrifica-

tensen, Vicky Stergiopoulos, Stephen Gaetz, and Sean

tion of space heating in residential homes in the US,”

53 Ibid., 14–7.

A. Kidd. 2021. “Climate Change, Weather, Housing

Energy Policy 163.

54 Ibid., 18.

Precarity, and Homelessness: A Systematic Review of

28 Egger.

55 Caitlyn Kennedy. 2015. “Risk of very large fires could

Reviews,” International Journal of Environmental Research

29

increase sixfold by mid-century in the US.”

and Public Health.

The White House. 2022. “Fact Sheet: President Biden

Takes Bold Executive Action to Spur Domestic Clean

56 Nathan Mietkiewicz, Jennifer K. Balch, Tania Schoen-

8 Ulises Mercado Burciaga, Paola Villoria Sáez, and

Energy Manufacturing,” 6 June press release.

nagel, Stefan Leyk, Lise A. St. Denis, and Bethany A.

Francisco Javier Hernández Ayón. 2019. “Strategies to

30

Reduce CO2 Emissions in Housing Building by Means

Interview with Daniel Kammen.

Bradley. 2020. “In the Line of Fire: Consequences

of CDW,” Emerging Science Journal 3:5, 274.

31 Wei Wu and Harrison M. Skye. 2018. “Net-zero nation:

of Human-Ignited Wildfires to Homes in the U.S.

(1992–2015),” Fire 3:50, 1.

9 Carlos Martín. 2022. “Exploring Climate Change in

HVAC and PV systems for residential net-zero energy

U.S. Housing Policy,” Housing Policy Debate 32:1, 1.

buildings across the United States,” Energy Conversion

57 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

and Management 177.

2022, 18.

10 Interview with Krista Egger, 27 May 2022.

32 Martín, 2.

58 “How to Prepare Your Home for Wildfires,” National

11 Martín.

33 Sarah Kaplan and Andrew Ba Tran. 2022. “More than

Fire Protection Association website (www.nfpa.org//-/

12 Qui Feng and Pierre Gauthier. 2021. “Untangling

40 percent of Americans live in counties hit by climate

media/Files/Firewise/Fact-sheets/FirewiseHowTo-

Urban Sprawl and Climate Change: A Review of the

disasters in 2021,” The W ashington Post, 5 January.

PrepareYourHomeForWildfires.pdf). Accessed 1 June Literature on Physical Planning and Transportation

34

2022.

Drivers,” Atmosphere 12:5 .

Mark Brennan, Tanaya Srini, Justin Steil, Miho Mazer-

eeuw, and Larisa Ovalles. 2022. “A Perfect Storm?

59 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

13 Christopher Jones and Daniel M. Kammen. 2013.

Disasters and Evictions,” Housing Policy Debate 32:1.

“Spatial Distribution of US Household Carbon

2022, 10–3.

35

Footprints Reveals Suburbanization Undermines

“Western U.S. Drought,” U.S. Department of the Inte-

60 Alex Greer, Sherri Brokopp Binder, and Elyse Zavar.

Greenhouse Gas Benefits of Urban Population

rior website (www.doi.gov/ocl/western-us-drought-0).

2022. “From Hazard Mitigation to Climate Adapta-

Density,” Environmental Science & Technology.

Accessed 18 July 2022.

tion: A Review of Home Buyout Program Literature,”

36

14 Stephen Hudson. 2022. “This map shows how low-

Brennan, et al.

Housing Policy Debate 32.

density sprawl makes climate change worse,” Greater 37 Interview with Krista Egger.

61 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Greater Washington 2 May .

38 United Nations Environment Programme. 2021.

2022, 10–3.

15 Interview with Daniel Kammen, 8 June 2022.

“A Practical Guide to Climate-resilient Buildings

62 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

16 “The Case for Sustainability Through Transit-Oriented

& Communities,” 36, 44–5.

2021, 22.

Development,” NJTOD website (www.njtod.org/

39 Congressional Research Services. 2021. “U.S. Climate

63 Ibid.

the-case-for-sustainability-through-transit-oriented-

Change Policy,” 29.

64 Ibid., 23.

development/). Accessed 9 June 2022.

40 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

65 Ibid., 24.

17 Peter Berrill, Kenneth T. Gillingham, and Edgar G.

ment. “Asset Management Overview” (www.hud.gov/

Hertwich. 2021. “Linking Housing Policy, Housing

program_offices/public_indian_housing/programs/

66 Bezgrebelna et.al, 18; Shalanda Young, Brenda Mallory,

Typology, and Residential Energy Demand in the

ph/am/overview). Accessed 20 May 2022.

and Gina McCarthy. 2021. “The Path to Achieving

United States,” Environmental Science and Technology 55;

41 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

Justice40, ” The White House, 20 July; “HUD Releases

Maanvi Singh and Oliver Milman. 2021. “Denser cities

ment. 2021. “Climate Action Plan, ” 5.

Agency Climate Action Plan.”

could be a climate boon — but nimbyism stands in

42 “CDBG-MIT Action Plan,” Louisiana Watershed Initia-

67 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

the way,” The Guardian. 22 August.

tive website (watershed.la.gov/action-plan). Accessed 2021, 32.

18 Thomas L. Daniels. 2021. “Re-designing America’s

2 June 2022; Office of Community Development,

68 Ibid.

suburbs for the age of climate change and pandemics,”

State of Louisiana. 2019. “Master Action Plan for the

69

Socio-Ecological Practice Research 3.

“Climate Action: Fair Housing and Equal Oppor-

Utilization of Community Development Block Grant

tunity,” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

19 Sara Gusmao Brissi, Lucuana Debs, and Emad Elwakil.

Mitigation Funds (CDBG-MIT),” 9–11.

Development website (www.hud.gov/climate/fair_

2021. “A Review on the Factors Affecting the Use of

43 Office of Community Development, State of Louisiana

Offsite Construction in Multifamily Housing in the

and_healthy_housing). Accessed 3 June 2022.

2019; “Rebuild by Design,” U.S. Department of Hous-

United States,” Buildings 11:5.

70

ing and Urban Development website

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

20 Burciaga, et al.

(www.hud.gov/sandyrebuilding/rebuildbydesign).

2021, 32–6.

71

21 Shubhi Dubey, Ashita Singh, and Suresh Singh Kush-

Accessed 2 June 2022.

Interview with Krista Egger.

wah. 2019. “Utilization of iron and steel slag in building

44 “Rebuild by Design — Hudson River,” State of New

72 Interview with Daniel Kammen.

12

Opportunities To Reduce

HIGHLIGHTS

Climate Risks Through Land

n Land use regulations, such as zoning

ordinances and building codes that

spotlight

Use Regulations

determine the location and type of

ch

residential development, impact the

environment.

Land use regulations have been emissions from the construction and n Policies that promote higher-density, in the news over the past several

operation of housing and its supporting

resear

mixed-use developments with access

years as the production of new housing

infrastructure; longer travel distances

to public infrastructure, along with

has failed to keep up with demand,

when homes are not located near jobs,

energy-efficiency improvements

particularly in areas with strong eco-

shops, resources, and amenities; and a

to older housing stock, can reduce

nomic growth. 1 The media has focused

larger portion of the population living

greenhouse gas emissions.

on high housing prices resulting from

in areas at risk of natural disasters.

n Climate mitigation and adaptation

rules dictating large minimum lot sizes

Current practices, including trends in

policies should consider social

and setbacks, parking, and impact fees,

location choices, are not sustainable.

equity and environmental justice

among other requirements, along with

This article examines how development

and be tailored to a community’s

zoning ordinances that limit housing in

choices affect the environment and

individual risks and resources.

certain areas to single-family detached

then explores the ways land use reforms

homes, and other regulatory compo-

can reduce negative environmental

nents. These rules not only contribute

impacts and promote climate resilience.

to determine how land is used, what

to high housing costs and a shortage of

As jurisdictions consider revising land

structures can be built, and how to

homes, but they push housing farther

use regulations to reduce greenhouse

balance competing priorities. Jurisdic-

away, leading to sprawl. Living in

gas emissions, they can address a range

tions have developed a body of land use

suburbs may seem part of the Ameri-

of related issues, such as increasing

regulations that govern development,

can Dream, but those areas come at

affordable housing and improving

including zoning ordinances, subdivision

a significant environmental cost and

public health.2

rules, adequate public facility ordinances,

contribute to climate change.

traffic standards, design requirements,

Development Choices

and other local rules. Building codes

The relationship between housing

and the Environment

and environmental statutes impose

and climate change involves numer-

In the United States, states have del-

additional requirements. Land use

ous factors, including greenhouse gas

egated authority to local jurisdictions

regulations and their implementation

Figure 1. Residential Use Constitutes More Than 20 Percent of the Energy

Used in the United States

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2022. “Monthly Energy Review,” Tables 2.1a, 2.1b. Accessed 8 August 2022.

13

determine where building occurs,

density and emissions. 7 Jones and Kam-

the addition of impermeable surfaces

what is built, and how it is built, all of

men found that although dense city

leads to greater runoff and flash

which affect the environment. Because

centers have lower household emis-

flooding, and concrete and asphalt

residential uses account for more

sions, the extensive suburbanization of

radiate heat.12 Low-density neighbor-

than 20 percent of the nation’s energy

the region may result in an overall net

hoods also require more building

consumption (see figure 1), housing

increase in emissions compared with

materials per capita, with the asso-

policies can play an important role

those of smaller metropolitan areas.

ciated emissions of manufacturing

in reducing energy use. Such policies

According to their analysis, suburban

concrete, asphalt, piping, and other

can also reduce individuals’ vehicle

areas accounted for nearly 50 percent

inputs.13 Extending housing farther

miles traveled. The U.S. Environmental

of the total U.S. household carbon

from the city center takes an addi-

Protection Agency estimates that 38

footprint — in stark contrast to

tional toll on the environment when

percent of greenhouse gas emissions

suburbanites’ perceptions that their

the development eliminates natural

from transportation come from passen-

single-family homes, with their spa-

areas — including fields, forests,

ger cars (which include personal and

cious yards (thanks to large setback

and wetlands — while placing homes

commercial-use vehicles).3

requirements) and nearby parks, are

closer to areas susceptible to flooding

environmentally friendly. 8

or wildfires. Such practices also take

Location

their toll on residents, particularly

Zoning ordinances establish geographic

An analysis of land use scenarios by the

low- and moderate-income house-

zones that guide land use. For example,

Metropolitan Area Planning Council in

holds, who face longer commutes

land may be zoned for industrial use,

Massachusetts found the growth of ve-

with higher transportation costs and

commercial or retail use, residential

hicle miles traveled in a sprawl scenario

may live in areas of greater risk.

use at various densities, or a combina-

was 5.2 percentage points higher than

tion of these. When zoning separates

in a scenario with more development

With the increase in wildfires, flooding,

residential uses from retail uses —

in urban areas and denser suburbs,

storms, heat waves, drought, and other

such as the grocery store and daycare

even before accounting for any benefits

weather-related risks, current residen-

center — individuals must travel longer

from transit improvements or transit-

tial patterns leave millions at risk of

distances to accomplish their daily tasks.

oriented development.9 The authors

a disaster.

Mixed-use zones, which allow retail and

conclude that smart growth policies and

commercial establishments near hous-

user fees, designed to advance racial

What Is Built

ing, allow people to drive less and thus

and economic equity, must be part of a

Land use regulations, often through

emit fewer greenhouse gases. People

comprehensive transportation sustain-

zoning ordinances, govern the types

must spend more time in their vehicles

ability strategy; governments cannot

of residences that can be built as well

when homes near job centers are too

rely solely on technology-based solutions

as lot size, lot coverage, and setbacks.

expensive, forcing them to live in more

to meet greenhouse gas reduction

These components are important influ-

affordable housing farther away. Built

targets. As Badger explains, “Give people

ences on the urban form, and these

environments are typically long lasting,

a hybrid, and they drive more. Give

policy choices have significant environ-

locking in the carbon-intensive build-

people a state-of-the-art home heating

mental implications.

ings and infrastructure that land use

system, and sometimes they turn up the

policies create. 4

temperature. But there’s no backslid-

For example, infill development,

ing with land-use changes.” 10 Xu et al.

which occurs in areas that are already

In 2011, journalist Emily Badger wrote

similarly note that relying on techno-

developed, often involves smaller

that “suburban lifestyles represent

logical advances, alternative energy,

buildings that are designed to fit into

one of the most serious threats to the

and engineering protection solutions

the available space and use existing

climate.” Research finds urban environ-

are not sufficient; land use planning

infrastructure. Such development,

ments with greater density and accessibility

provides an important tool in develop-

however, often requires numerous

reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 5 For

ing strategies.11

approvals that are time consuming,

example, Monkkonen, Guerra, Esca-

expensive, and unpredictable. Local

milla, and Cos examined 400 cities in

When workers in a community cannot

land use policies can make building

40 countries and found dense, compact

access nearby housing, they will live

homes in a previously undeveloped

cities with built-up downtowns and

in more distant homes that require

area, known as greenfield develop-

shorter roadway segments had lower

additional infrastructure to be built,

ment, a much easier process, although

carbon dioxide emissions per capita.6

such as streets, water mains, sewage

doing so requires installing roads,

A comparison among American, Aus-

pipes, and gas lines. Installing this

sidewalks, water and sewer systems,

tralian, and Canadian cities similarly

infrastructure can create negative

and other infrastructure. An analysis

found a negative correlation between

environmental impacts; for example,

from California’s scenario planning

14

These factors drive not only the urban

form and location of housing but also

the construction and resulting operation

of units. This broad scope is important

because once housing is built, it tends to

last for a long time.

Construction

Housing construction directly contrib-

utes to greenhouse gas emissions in

multiple ways, including the production

of construction materials as well as the

energy efficiency of the units built.

Efforts are underway to reduce embod-

ied carbon, which refers to

the total impact of all the green-

house gases emitted by the supply

chain of a construction material,

including raw material extraction,

transport to the manufacturing

plant, the manufacturing process,

Research finds that urban environments with greater density and accessibility reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

the transport of finished goods to

the construction site, construction

site activities and material losses,

found an average household in a high-

significant setbacks, and other parameters

materials use phase, repair, mainte-

density urban community in the San

that prohibit building units with greater

nance and replacement, as well as

Francisco area produces 6 metric

efficiency in both construction and en-

the end of life processing.19

tons of carbon emissions a year from

ergy usage over the life of the home.

transportation and household heat-

When land use regulations, such as

ing compared with 21 metric tons of

Choices about urban form directly

design standards, parking requirements,

annual carbon emissions from a single-

affect water demand. For example,

or building codes, require materials with

family household in a nearby suburban

compact development, infill develop-

higher embodied carbon, they increase

area. 14 A recent analysis examining

ment, and homes on smaller lots use

greenhouse gas emissions. Concrete,

Los Angeles and Boston found that

less water than do single-family homes

steel, and aluminum are three of the

greenhouse gas emissions are higher

on large lots.17 Land use policies often

most carbon-intensive building materi-

in higher-income neighborhoods than

require developers to include green

als to produce.20 Requiring the use of

in low-income neighborhoods, which

spaces and may even prescribe landscap-

specific carbon-intensive materials has

have a more compact form and higher

ing yet also impose significant parking

what Cole describes as “intergenera-

population density and consist primarily

requirements, which create runoff;

tional environmental consequences,”

of multifamily apartments.15

the parking areas also reduce the land

locking in future carbon emissions.21

available for housing units and drive

Identifying materials and construction

Similarly, jurisdictions that require

up development costs. Coordination

methods that are environmentally

only single-family homes in a commu-

between staff at the water management

friendly can support new construction.

nity, rather than permitting a range of

agency and staff in the land use depart-

For example, replacing energy-intensive

structures such as townhomes, garden

ment might result in a better plan with a

materials with lower-impact alternatives,

apartments, and multifamily buildings

more thoughtful approach incorporat-

such as using engineered timber rather

impose environmental costs. Units

ing both green and blue infrastructure

than steel, can reduce the negative envi-

with shared walls, such as townhouses,

such as parks, trees, garden roofs,

ronmental effects of construction. 22

consume less energy for heating and

reserves, wetlands, and sustainable

cooling than single-family homes,

urban drainage systems. 18

Only a small supply of the housing

which have an inherent structural

stock, historically ranging between

inefficiency.16 The environmental costs

The built environment results from

1 and 2 percent, is built annually. The

are even greater in jurisdictions that

responding to market needs in the

result is that more than half of exist-

impose large minimum lot sizes,

context of the regulatory environment.

ing single-family homes in the United

15

States are more than 40 years old (see

when possible, rather than demolish-

of a coastal area in China, recommend

figure 2). Most multifamily units were

ing them to build new housing, are

a combined approach, with moderate

also built before 1980.23 The preva-

clear. Deconstructing older buildings to

population density to limit sprawl while

lence of older housing stock means

salvage scarce and high-quality materials

avoiding overcrowding of urban cen-

that a large portion of U.S. homes

also offers significant benefits for both

ters; a mix of residential, employment,

are not energy efficient. Aging homes

the environment and local communities.26

retail, and leisure uses; high road con-

are more likely to be in low-income,

nectivity with adequate intersections;

minority neighborhoods (see figure 3);

Land Use Reforms

and planned and protected green open

as a result, low-income households use

to Reduce Negative

space that supports the urban density. 27

more energy because they live in older

Environmental Impacts

Viguié and Hallegatte similarly note

units with less efficient technology. As

Land use reforms can reduce climate

tradeoffs among policy goals when

a percentage of income, low-income

risks in two distinct ways: mitigation

comparing a greenbelt policy to reduce

households spend three times more

and adaptation. Mitigation focuses

sprawl, a zoning policy to reduce flood

on energy costs than do higher-income

on changing practices that increase

risk, and a transportation subsidy. They

households (8.1% and 2.3%, respectively). 24 greenhouse gas emissions to reduce found that each policy interfered with

Reducing residential energy use will

future damage to the environment.

the other policy goals, but when com-

require increasing the energy efficiency

Mitigation efforts may involve building

bined, the policies supported mitigation

of these homes. Although resources

at greater density with mixed land uses

and adaptation goals. 28 Furthermore,

such as the U.S. Department of Ener-

and having effective transportation

mitigation and adaptation efforts can

gy’s Weatherization Assistance Program

networks. Adaptation considers how to

create economic returns, including

are available for energy retrofits, many

reduce the risks households face from

making the area more desirable for

low-income residents do not qualify

current climate conditions, such as

investors, raising local property values,

for the program because their units

by developing and maintaining flood-

and lowering insurance costs.29

are not fit for habitation, have asbestos

plains to protect populated areas from

or mold, or have other disqualifying

coastal flooding and providing suf-

Climate mitigation and adaptation

factors. 25

ficient green space to reduce the urban

require consideration of social equity

heat island effect.

because low-income households, house-

Because new construction often involves

holds of color, the very young and very

significant embodied carbon and old

Some researchers note the conflict

old, and people with health conditions,

homes are inefficient, the benefits of

between mitigation and adaptation.

among others, are more vulnerable to

renovating and retrofitting older units

Xu et al., based on their empirical study

the effects of climate change and are

at a higher risk of damage from it. For

example, Boston implemented its city-

wide plan to reduce urban heat islands

Figure 2. Most Single-Family Homes in the United

in the five neighborhoods with the

States Are More Than 40 Years Old

greatest heat challenges, all of which

stemmed from the neighborhoods’

history of environmental injustices and

systemic racism.30

The Institute for Tribal Environmental

Professionals developed a toolkit that

offers a set of guiding principles for de-

signing climate adaptation strategies:

n Adopt integrated approaches.

n Prioritize the most vulnerable.

n Use best-available science.

n Build strong partnerships.

n Apply appropriate risk-management

methods and tools.

n Apply ecosystem-based approaches.

n Maximize mutual benefits.

n Continuously evaluate performance.31

Source: Sijie Li. 2020. “Where is the Aging Housing Stock in the United States,” Exhibit 1, Freddie Mac.

16

Cole recognizes the need for a new,

the economic losses.36 An example

tools for supporting well-planned density.

regenerative form of development that

provided in Gale37 is Charlotte County,

Transit-oriented development creates

emphasizes place and local communi-

Florida, which revised its transfer of den-

people-centered neighborhoods along

ties when considering responses to

sity units ordinance in 2018 to, in part:

transit corridors. 41 These designs can

climate change. He places the local eco-

result in shorter travel times, reduced

system — the combination of people,

n Assist in and encourage the re-

congestion, lower utility bills, improved

sociocultural systems, and ecological

placement of an unsustainable and

public health, and better air quality (see

systems — at the center of the process

inefficient form of development

Chester et al. for an analysis of the life-

of rethinking building design in rela-

with compact, higher density, mixed-

cycle benefits of a TOD in Phoenix). 42

tion to natural systems. 32 The Institute

use development that is more

Form-based codes enable communi-

for Tribal Environmental Professionals’

sustainable and efficiently uses

ties to think beyond parameters such as

toolkit and the regenerative develop-

resources.

setbacks, height, and lot coverage and

ment approaches are both designed to

n Offer incentives for retaining

consider factors that will help meet climate

bring a broader perspective to address-

long-term agricultural activities

objectives, such as orientation, exposure,

ing reforms.

and clustering rural development

and interaction with other buildings and

densities to create an alternative

public spaces. 43

Mitigation efforts cover activities such

to rural large-lot sprawl and to

as buildings, transportation, energy,

reduce the premature conversion

Placement of housing, not just in

and individual behavior, all of which are

of rural lands and preserve rural

relation to other buildings but also in

incorporated in land use policies. The

character and viewsheds.

relation to roads, water lines, utilities,

activities described below are categorized

n Create incentives for the voluntary

and parks, can help limit emissions.

into community- or house-level actions.

preservation of environmentally

Optimizing housing placement requires

sensitive lands. 38

a holistic approach to infrastructure

Communities

that involves coordinating among local

Land use policy drives the location

The role of dispersed housing in

agencies when planning major invest-

of housing, as previously discussed.

increasing greenhouse gas emissions

ments, such as those provided under

Jurisdictions can protect residents

is significant. Land use policies that

the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law.

by revising their zoning ordinances

promote appropriate density with

The Organisation for Economic Co-

to prevent or limit development in

accompanying infrastructure can

operation and Development (OECD)

high-risk locations. 33 In March 2018,

counter this effect. The use of “appro-

developed a list of 25 climate policy

Norfolk, Virginia, implemented new

priate” in this context acknowledges

actions. One of the action items recom-

zoning overlays that direct new and

that no single solution is ideal for all

mends making sustainable building an

more intense development to higher

geographies and housing markets;

integral element in urban and rural

ground, evaluating projects according

housing needs to be optimized for

planning. Integrating infrastructure

to standards set for flood risk reduc-

different location types. Density does

and urban planning would include plac-

tion, stormwater management, and

not necessarily mean large apartment

ing public transportation near housing,

energy resilience.34 Projects that do

buildings — it could mean smaller

offices, shopping districts, and green

not meet a minimum threshold must

homes on smaller lots with a corner

spaces to enhance a city’s vitality and

undergo a more complex site review

store and barbershop nearby. All

economic development while reducing

that examines additional goals such as

communities would benefit from reduc-

greenhouse gas emissions by decreasing

conserving water resources, protecting

ing parking requirements or at least

travel. OECD also proposes encouraging

water quality, supporting multimodal

recognizing the benefits of sharing

compact, denser cities with regula-

transportation and mobility, and pro-

parking between residential and com-

tions that provide for green spaces and

viding mixed-income residential or

mercial uses. 39 In addition, sufficient

water areas to prevent congestion and

mixed-use developments. 35

density to support public transporta-

overheating. 44 Underlying these recom-

tion — along with quality walking and

mendations is the need for systematic

Land along the ocean shoreline or near

biking routes — has environmental

transformation in the way jurisdictions

lakes or forests is often the most valu-

and health benefits. Pain et al. recom-

invest in their communities to create and

able because of the amenities nature

mend combining public transportation

improve housing and transportation.

provides. Jurisdictions can counter

that has sufficient capacity, quality, and

the value lost from restricting develop-

accessibility with reduced parking and

The Institute for Tribal Environmental

ment in such areas by allowing more

limitations on car circulation. 40

Professionals recognizes the need to

development, or more intense develop-

consider risks in three sectors — the

ment, in other areas and by providing

Transit-oriented development (TOD)

natural, built, and social environments —

transfers of development rights to offset

and form-based codes are both established when developing a climate resilience

17

plan. Within the built environment, the

more heat than natural landscapes

Baltimore County works with the county

institute outlines three areas for con-

such as forests and bodies of water.

government, local universities, com-

sideration: land use (such as housing, Urban areas, where structures are

munity organizations, and residents

hazardous sites, recreation, and agri-

highly concentrated, can experience

to create small pocket parks, gardens,

culture), utilities (such as water supply, daytime temperatures that are 1 to

trails, and other green areas. The

wastewater, energy, waste management,

7 degrees Fahrenheit higher than

program is funded by the county’s open

and communications systems), and

temperatures in outlying areas and

space waiver fees. Developers who are

transportation (including access, infra-

nighttime temperatures 2 to 5 degrees

unable to set aside 1,000 square feet of

structure, public transit, and marine/

Fahrenheit higher, a phenomenon

open space for each newly constructed

port facilities). 45 This approach recog-

referred to as the urban heat island

dwelling unit may seek waivers from

nizes the interconnectedness among

effect.49 Heat islands can create risks

the county and pay a fee, 20 percent of

housing, transportation, water, communi-

for urban residents living in areas with

which is given to NeighborSpace.53

cations, and other infrastructure systems.

poorly planned density, particularly as

Accordingly, no single component can

communities throughout the United

Rural communities provide opportu-

fully mitigate the negative effects of

States increasingly are experiencing

nities to invest in clean energy while

climate change or improve the ability of

dangerous heat waves. Adding water

rebuilding housing and commercial

communities to withstand its effects.

elements and green spaces to these

developments, installing broadband

areas can reduce the effect of urban

internet connections, and upgrading

Visualizations that capture flood risk,

heat islands.

other infrastructure. With their wide-

groundwater, permeability, infrastruc-

open areas, rural communities contain

ture, topography, geology, and zoning

Some communities are taking more

most of the nation’s onshore wind

can play an important role in under-

expansive measures. For example, the

capacity and utility-scale solar capaci-

standing the challenges and looking

Blackfeet Nation is working to capture

ty. 54 Renewable energy investments can

more systematically for solutions,

groundwater and restore riparian

promote economic growth if supported

including through land use policies. 46

areas through a restoration project

by any necessary land use regula-

Other tools are being developed to

to increase resilience to drought and

tory changes. The pandemic and the

help local agencies understand how to

reduce flooding.50

subsequent rise in remote work have

consider urban form and urban mobility

encouraged households to relocate to

to reduce energy consumption.47

Philadelphia implemented its Green

smaller towns and rural areas. Research-

City, Clean Waters plan in 2009 to ad-

ers from the University of Toronto

An important component for mitiga-

dress problems caused by its combined

propose that “managed retreat,” the

tion in both rural and urban areas is

sewer overflow system. Rather than

concept of rebuilding in safer locations

sufficient green and blue infrastruc-

creating a traditional grey infrastruc-

before disasters occur, could further

ture. Blue infrastructure refers to water

ture system involving pipes, storage

contribute to a network of reinvigorated

elements such as rivers, canals, ponds,

tanks, and expanded treatment capac-

small towns.55

wetlands, floodplains, water treatment

ity, the city turned to a green stormwater

facilities, and storm drainage systems.

infrastructure that included creating

Climate mitigation efforts involving

Blue infrastructure involves the system

green spaces, rain gardens, bioswales,

land use choices and interconnected

for addressing water usage, stormwater

and other interventions to reduce storm-

infrastructure investments at the com-

management, and flooding risks; it in-

water runoff and improve infiltration.51

munity level must also be applied at the

teracts directly with green infrastructure.

Compared with a grey infrastructure

individual building level to promote in-

Green infrastructure describes the net-

approach, the Green City, Clean Waters

dividual and environmental well-being.

work of multifunctional green space that

plan was less expensive; more rapidly

includes parks, open space, recreational

implemented; and resulted in a better

Homes

fields, woods, trees, private gardens,

quality of life for residents, increased

Choices regarding housing size, type,

and green roofs. Systems such as rain

property values, offset carbon emis-

building materials, and heating systems

gardens and bioswales that are designed

sions, reduced heat island effects, and

all directly affect carbon emissions.56

to capture and filter stormwater are

improved public health.52

The land use policies that specify the

important “blue-green infrastructure,”

details of what homes can be built, what

which involves using plants and soils

In Baltimore County, Maryland, 70

materials must be used, and what utility

to filter pollutants, reduce runoff, and

percent of residents did not have acces-

standards apply offer policymakers op-

recharge groundwater in aquifers. 48

sible open space within a quarter mile

portunities to improve energy efficiency

of their homes. Local watersheds had

and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Buildings, roads, and other infra-

been polluted by stormwater runoff.

OECD recommends stringent climate-

structure elements absorb and re-emit

The nonprofit NeighborSpace of

friendly building codes and standards

18

Figure 3. Nearly 75 Percent of the Housing Stock in Low-Income, Minority Census

Tracts Was Built Before 1980

Note: “Aging Housing Stock” is defined as housing built before 1980.

Source: Sijie Li. 2020. “Where is the Aging Housing Stock in the United States,” Exhibit 6, Freddie Mac.

that require sustainable materials,

efficient building shapes, and changing

with 18 three- and four-bedroom homes,

low-energy homes, and integrated sus-

design standards to require low-impact

including units for people with disabili-

tainable waste and water management. 57

materials.59

ties.63 The project builds on efforts

connected to the state of Washington’s

Many resources are available to guide

Levitt and Adams note that low-rise

Ultra-High Energy Efficient Affordable

jurisdictions in implementing climate-

buildings are less carbon-intensive to

Housing Demonstration Program.

friendly practices. The American Council

build. 60 Incorporating passive cooling

The building innovations will reduce

for an Energy-Efficient Economy identi-

into the building design of homes can

residents’ utility costs and improve air

fies several opportunities to reduce

limit air conditioning use by limit-

quality.64

greenhouse gas emissions, including

ing heat buildup and accelerating

constructing zero-energy homes, which

heat dispersal; various traditional or

Retrofits are important because of the

produce at least as much energy as

modern passive cooling techniques

inefficiency of old homes and the embod-

they use; retrofitting homes, which

may be suitable depending on the

ied carbon involved in replacing those

can reduce a home’s energy usage by

local climate.61 As buildings are being

homes with new buildings. Despite the

an average of 30 percent; optimizing

built or renovated, material banks can

benefits, each year less than 1 percent

energy use with automated controls

encourage the reuse of materials.62

of the building stock is being renovated

and other sensors, reducing consump-

These banks track each item being

to reduce carbon emissions.65 OECD

tion by 15 percent or more; and using

used to supply information on the

recommends implementing tax and

electricity (primarily heat pumps) for

components to those harvesting the

financial incentives to renovate existing

space and water heating.58 The Carbon

building in the future.

buildings and develop retrofit solutions.66

Neutral Cities Alliance explains how

to reduce carbon in buildings through

In Tukwila, Washington, a community

Because more than 50 percent of

zoning rules, which include renovating

land trust, in partnership with the state

the existing housing stock was built

existing buildings to increase efficiency,

and local governments, is building a

more than 40 years ago, improving

changing zoning rules to require more

net-zero affordable housing development

the energy efficiency of these homes

19

Transit-oriented development is an established tool for supporting well-planned density.

introduces a significant opportunity to

would be designed to position these

to consider density, the mix of uses,

reduce greenhouse gases. The federal

homes to access federal weatherization

connectivity among street networks,

Weatherization Assistance Program

funds. 70 As one legislator explained,

accessibility to a wide range of loca-

funds the repair or replacement of

the program would help fix housing

tions with low travel distance and time,

heating, ventilation, and air condition-

in struggling mining communities “be-

and green and blue infrastructure — the

ing systems; upgrades to windows and

fore they completely go to rot . . . that’s

full range of physical, socioeconomic,

doors to increase energy efficiency; and

better for the people living in the

and policy drivers. Policymakers also

other repairs. However, the program

homes, better for the next-door neigh-

need to consider the many co-benefits

requires that eligible homes have no

bor, and better for the taxpayer if they

of climate mitigation and adaptation

mold, asbestos, or structural issues,

don’t have to fund millions and millions

initiatives, including long-term environ-

which excludes many of the lowest-

in demolition costs. ”71

mental health, economic viability, and

income households that could benefit

residents’ health and well-being, as well

from the program.67 According to one

Beyond weatherization, other specific

as how to ensure that these decisions

estimate, 10 to 30 percent of potential

retrofits, such as shutters, can position and investments consider equity and

income-eligible weatherization clients

the housing stock to better withstand

environmental justice. Inherent in this

nationally are deferred because of

more frequent storms, flooding, and

approach is the recognition that no

health and safety issues. The costs to

heat. Such adaptations can minimize

one-size-fits-all approach can succeed,

remedy deficiencies to become eligible

risks while raising home values and lower-

because jurisdictions face different

for the federal program can be high;

ing insurance costs.72

risks; have varying resources; and have

for example, Virginia officials estimate

experienced different histories and pat-

that the average weatherization barrier

Conclusion

terns of development, investment, and

remediation costs are $5,000 to $8,000. 68

No single approach will reduce green-

disinvestment.

house gas emissions sufficiently to

The Pennsylvania legislature is consider-

meet the country’s goals and residents’

Urban planning must be part of an

ing a bill to create a fund that would

needs. Yet jurisdictions often focus on

intersectional climate policy solution,

award grants to address habitability

individual problems as they arise rather

particularly through the many land

concerns, improve energy and water

than considering the interplay among

use regulations that determine what is

efficiency, and make units accessible for

causes, contexts, and resulting conditions. built and where. Many resources are

individuals with disabilities.69 More than

Reducing the negative effects of the built

available to inform changes to land use

280,000 occupied homes in Pennsylvania

environment on the natural environ-

regulations and policies to reduce the

are estimated to have moderate to severe

ment requires considering a larger

negative impact on the environment

physical issues, and the grant program

ecosystem. Land use decisions need

and improve communities. Developing

20

Water Management: Planning and Practice, ” Lincoln

buildings). Accessed 8 August 2022.

a climate-friendly network of housing,

Institute of Land Policy.

45 Institute for Tribal Environmental Professionals.

transportation, and other infrastruc-

18 Rugland; Winkless.

46 Levitt and Adams.

ture is necessary but not sufficient.

19 Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance. n.d. “City Policy

47 See, for example, Roger Cremades and Philipp S. Som-

People’s day-to-day activities in their

Framework for Dramatically Reducing Embodied

mer. 2019. “Computing climate-smart urban land use

Carbon.”

with the Integrated Urban Complexity model (IUCm

communities are an important compo-

20 Architecture 2030. “Embodied Carbon Actions”

1.0),” Geoscientific Model Development 12, 525–39.

nent. Reducing emissions will require

(architecture2030.org/embodied-carbon-actions/).

48 “Rain Gardens: A Way to Improve Water Quality,”

Accessed 8 August 2022.

transforming how individuals think,

University of Massachusetts Amherst Extension Land-

21 Raymond J. Cole. 2020. “Navigating Climate Change: Re-

scape, Nursery and Urban Forestry Program website

work, and interact.

thinking the Role of Buildings,” Sustainability 12:22, 9527.

(ag.umass.edu/landscape/fact-sheets/rain-gardens-

22 Winkless.

way-to-improve-water-quality). Accessed 8 August 2022.

— Pamela M. Blumenthal , HUD

23 Michael Neal, Laurie Goodman, and Caitlin Young.

49 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. “Reducing

2020. “Housing Supply Chartbook, ” Urban Institute.

urban heat islands: Compendium of strategies.”

24 Ariel Drehobl, Lauren Ross, and Roxana Ayala. 2020.

50 See “Protecting Beaver and Restoring Wetlands: The

1 Emily Badger. 2022. “Something Has to Give in the

“How High are Household Energy Burdens? An

Ksik Stakii Project,” Blackfeet Country and Climate

Housing Market. Or Does It?” New York Times, 20

Assessment of National and Metropolitan Energy

Change website (blackfeetclimatechange.com/what-

January; Andrew Wimer. 2022. “Rules Requiring

Burden across the United States, ” American Council

kind-of-future-do-we-want/the-blackfeet-nation-is-

People to Buy Big Homes Are Pricing Americans Out

for an Energy-Efficient Economy.

adapting/ksik-stakii/). Accessed 8 August 2022.

of the Housing Market,” Forbes, 17 May.

25 Rachel M. Cohen. 2022. “How to fight the affordable

51 Rugland.

2 The Harvard Law Review Association. 2022. “State

housing and climate crises at once: It’s all about the

52 Ibid.

Preemption of Local Zoning Laws as Intersectional

energy bills,” Vox, 17 April.

53 James N. Levitt and Chandni Navalkha. 2022. “From

Climate Policy,” Harvard Law Review 135:6, 1592.

26 National Association of Home Builders Research

the Ground Up: How Land Trusts and Conservancies

Center, Inc. 2000. “A Guide to Deconstruction, ” U.S.

3 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2022. “Fast

are Providing Solutions to Climate Change, ” Lincoln

Facts: U.S. Transportation Sector Greenhouse Gas

Department of Housing and Urban Development,

Office of Policy Development and Research.

Institute of Land Policy.

Emissions, 1990–2020.”

54

27 Xu et al.

Devashree Saha, Alex Rudee, Haley Leslie-Bole, and

4 Laurie Winkless. 2022. “Rethinking our cities to

Tom Cyrs. 2021. “The Economic Benefits of the New

tackle climate change,” Forbes, 21 April.

28 Vincent Viguié and Stéphane Hallegatte. 2012.

Climate Economy in Rural America,” working paper,

“Trade-offs and synergies in urban climate policies,”

5 Kathy Pain, Daniel Black, Jon Blower, Sue Grimmond,

World Resources Institute.

Nature Climate Change 2, 334–7.

Alistair Hunt, Santimira Milcheva, et al. 2018. “Sup-

55 Hillary A. Brown and Daniel R. Brooks. 2021. “How

porting Smart Urban Development: Successful Investing

29 Rebecca Gale. 2022. “Enhancing Resilience through

‘managed retreat’ from climate change could revital-

in Density, ” working paper, Urban Land Institute.

Neighborhood-Scale Strategies,” Urban Land Institute.

ize rural America: Revisiting the Homestead Act,” The 30

6 Paavo Monkkonen, Erick Guerra, Jorge Montejano

Ibid.

Conversation, 18 October.

Escamilla, and Camilo Caudillo Cos. 2022. “Regulat-

31 Institute for Tribal Environmental Professionals. 2019.

56 Goldstein, Gounaridis, and Newell.

ing Urban Sustainability: Land Regulations, Urban

“Climate Change Adaptation Planning: Background

57 Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and

Spatial Structure, Transportation Infrastructure, and

Material.”

Development. “Put in place stringent green building

Greenhouse Gas Emissions, ” Lincoln Institute of 32 Cole.

codes and standards” (www.oecd.org/stories/climate-

Land Policy.

33 Jenny Schuetz. 2019. “To save the planet, the Green

action/key-sectors/regulate-buildings). Accessed 23

7 Katrina Wyman, Danielle Spiegel-Feld, Adalene

New Deal needs to improve urban land use,” Brook-August 2022.

Minelli, and Sara Savarani. 2022. “Valuing Density:

ings Institution, 15 January.

58 American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy.

An Evaluation of the Extent to which American, Aus-

34 The Pew Charitable Trusts. 2019. “Norfolk’s Revised

tralian, and Canadian Cities Account for the Climate

2019. “Halfway There: Energy efficiency can cut

Zoning Ordinance Aims to Improve Flood Resilience,”

Benefits of Density through Environmental Review,”

energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in half by

issue brief, 19 November.

Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

2050,” fact sheet, 17 September.

35 City of Norfolk. “5.12 Resilience Quotient.” Accessed 59

8 Christopher Jones and Daniel M. Kammen. 2014.

Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance.

10 August 2022.

“Spatial Distribution of U.S. Household Carbon Foot-

60 Levitt and Adams.

36

prints Reveals Suburbanization Undermines Green-

Gale.

61 Sean Becketti. 2021. “The Impact of Climate Change

house Gas Benefits of Urban Population Density,”

37 Ibid.

on Housing and Housing Finance,” Research Institute Environmental Science & Technology 48:2, 895–902.

38 See Charlotte County. “Transfer of Density Units

for Housing America.

9 Conor Gately and Tim Reardon. 2021. “The Impacts

(TDU)” (www.charlottecountyfl.gov/departments/

62 Winkless.

of Land Use and Pricing in Reducing Vehicle Miles

community-development/planning-zoning/com-

63 See Homestead Community Land Trust. 2022. “Home-

Traveled and Transport Emissions in Massachusetts,”

prehensive-planning/transfer-of-density-units.stml).

stead Community Land Trust Kicks Off Construction

Metropolitan Area Planning Council.

Accessed 8 August 2022.

of The Southard in Tukwila, ” LinkedIn post, 23 June.

10 Emily Badger. 2011. “The Missing Link of Climate

39 Anthony De Yurre and Jennifer E. Fine. 2019. “Case

64 For details on the demonstration, see Washington

Change: Single-Family Suburban Homes,” Bloomberg

Study Series: Benefits of Coral Gables Shared Parking

State Department of Commerce. 2018. “Ultra-Efficient

CityLab, 7 December.

Ordinance,” National Law Review, 30 April.

Affordable Housing Demonstration: Report to the

40

11 Lilai Xu, Xiaoming Wang, Jiahui Liu, Yuanrong He,

Pain et al.

Legislature.”

Jianxiong Tang, Minh Nguyen, and Shenghui Cui.

41 See Federal Transit Administration. “National Re-

65 Cole.

2019. “Identifying the trade-offs between climate

sources & Technical Assistance for Transit-Oriented

change mitigation and adaptation in urban land use

Development” (todresources.org/); See the Form-

66 Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Devel-

planning: An empirical study in a coastal city,” Envi-Based Codes Institute at formbasedcodes.org/.

opment. “Use tax and financial incentives to renovate

ronment International 133, Part b.

42 Mikhail V. Chester, Matthew J. Nahlik, Andrew M.

existing buildings.”

12 Adie Tomer, Joseph W. Kane, Jenny Schuetz, and

Fraser, Mindy A. Kimball, and Venu M. Garikapati.

67 E4The Future. 2022. “Weatherization Barriers Toolkit:

Caroline George. 2021. “We can’t beat the climate

2013. “Integrating Life-cycle Environmental and

How to Address Health and Safety Barriers with an

crisis without rethinking land use,” Brookings Metro.

Economic Assessment with Transportation and Land

Income-Eligible Focus.”

13 Ibid.

Use Planning,” Environmental Science & Technology 68 Ibid.

47:21, 12020–8.

14 Badger 2011.

69 Pennsylvania General Assembly. 2022. “Senate Bill

43 Janna Levitt and Drew Adams. 2019. “Why Zoning

15 Benjamin Goldstein, Dimitrios Gounaridis, and Joshua

1135.” 

is Key to Combatting Climate Change,” Azure, 19

P. Newell, 2020. “The carbon footprint of household

70

February.

Cohen.

energy use in the United States,” Proceedings of the 71

44

Ibid.

National Academy of Sciences 117:32, 19122–30.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development. “Use tax and financial incentives

72 Katherine A. Kiel. 2021. “Climate Change Adaptation

16 Tomer et al. 2021.

to renovate existing buildings” (www.oecd.org/

and Property Values: A Survey of the Literature,”

17 Erin Rugland. 2022. “Integrating Land Use and

stories/climate-action/key-sectors/tax-and-subsidise-

Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

21

Resiliency at Work

HIGHLIGHTS

ctice

pra

in

As climate change makes extreme New Orleans — major flooding and n The Community Adaptation Program weather events more frequent,

storm damage disproportionately affect

in New Orleans has helped homeown-

states and localities are developing

the low-income households and people

ers install green infrastructure features

solutions to make housing and infra-

of color who predominantly live in low-

to reduce flooding in their yards and

structure more resilient to risks and

lying areas, creating an environmental

increase the city’s overall capacity to

costs. These resilience efforts are also

justice issue. 2 Pumps and canals that

collect and store stormwater.

addressing environmental inequity and

drained land for development in the

n The city of Norfolk, Virginia, is reducing

remediating the historical disadvantag-

early 1900s enabled low-income, Afri-

environmental inequities by deconcen-

es that frequently manifest themselves

can-American residents to move into

trating poverty in the St. Paul’s Area

in the damage, deaths, and long-term

single-family homes in areas that were

and transforming it into a climate-

suffering that disasters cause. Several re-

affordable because of their low-lying to-

resilient community.

cent mitigation and abatement initiatives

pography. At the same time, inhabiting

n After being devasted by the Camp Fire,

by communities that have experienced

such areas placed these groups at risk

the town of Paradise, California, is

major disasters offer useful lessons. In

of sinking soil and chronic flooding.

rebuilding with a focus on strengthen-

response to Hurricane Isaac in 2012, the

The city’s century-old drainage system

ing visible and invisible infrastructure,

resilient housing, evacuation routes,

city of New Orleans created the Gentilly

underscores how early efforts to build

and early warning systems.

Resilience District, which, in addition

single-purpose infrastructure such

to implementing large-scale grey and

as canals and walls work against the

green infrastructure projects, features

area’s ecology rather than in con-

a retrofit assistance program for home-

cert with it. 3 In addition to building

Leveraging Recovery

owners to construct flood risk-reduction

stronger storm walls, New Orleans

Funding

systems on their properties. The fre-

is also reducing flooding impacts by

In 2016, HUD awarded New Orleans

quent flooding in Norfolk, Virginia,

embracing its natural landscape and

$141.3 million in NDRC funding to

required implementing projects that

using it to develop green infrastruc-

repair lingering damage from Hurricane

manage stormwater and address envi-

ture projects. 4

Isaac. This funding was the second-

ronmental justice concerns, especially

largest award among the 13 grantees in

in areas where low-income and minority

In the aftermath of Hurricane Isaac in

that allocation round. The city’s NDRC

residents have been disproportionately

2012 and numerous prior hurricanes,

application proposed the creation of

affected. Devastated by the 2018 Camp

the city of New Orleans sought to reimag-

the Gentilly Resilience District (GRD),

Fire, the town of Paradise, California,

ine its recovery efforts with a renewed

the first of its kind in New Orleans. 10

has several public and private efforts

focus on resiliency. In particular, the

Located just north of downtown New

underway to increase resilience to

Greater New Orleans Urban Water Plan,

Orleans, Gentilly is bordered on the

wildfires, including developing safer

unveiled in 2013, guides the city’s long-

north by Lake Pontchartrain and on

evacuation routes and creating innovative

term vision for managing stormwater

the east and west by canals, making

building designs that use noncombustible

while also ensuring that residents and

the neighborhood particularly prone

materials. Funding from various HUD

businesses thrive. 5 The plan recommends

to flooding.11 According to the 2019

programs, including the National Di-

adding native vegetation and wetlands

American Community Survey 5-year

saster Resilience Competition (NDRC),

to help absorb stormwater naturally.6

estimates, approximately 76 percent of

Community Development Block

In 2013, the Rockefeller Foundation se-

Gentilly residents are African-American.

Grant-Disaster Recovery (CDBG-DR),

lected New Orleans for the 100 Resilient

Approximately 43 percent of Gentilly

and Choice Neighborhoods Implementa-

Cities (100RC) network, which spurred

households earn less than $35,000

tion (CNI) grants, helped realize many

discussions with other member cities

per year, and 14 percent of families in

of the resilience projects in these

to share best practices and resources.7

Gentilly live below the federal poverty

communities.

Participation in the 100RC network led

level. Approximately 60 percent of Gen-

New Orleans to become the first city in

tilly households are homeowners. The

New Orleans Adapts to

the world to develop a comprehensive

area’s demographics and heightened

a Changing Environment

resilience strategy, which was un-

environmental risks require policymakers

New Orleans’ location along the Gulf

veiled in 2015.8 The city also created

and stakeholders to pay close attention

of Mexico leaves the city more vulnerable the Mayor’s Office of Resilience and

to developing equitable solutions.12

to the effects of climate change-related

Sustainability in 2015 to serve as a

flooding than any other city in the nation.1

hub for implementing adaptation

According to Seth Knudsen, director of

This risk is unevenly distributed across

initiatives.9

real estate development and planning

22

Authority

Photo courtesy of New Orleans Redevelopment

Along with permeable materials such as gravel, many homeowners participating in New Orleans’ Community Adaptation Program have added trees, plants, and pine straw to help absorb rain.

at the New Orleans Redevelopment Au-

also works with homeowners through

written notice of application approval,

thority (NORA), the NDRC award has

NORA to manage stormwater in resi-

NORA and the homeowner proceed to

been instrumental in leveraging Hazard

dential neighborhoods. 16

the environmental review phase. The

Mitigation Grant Program funds from

homeowner and contractor then sign

the Federal Emergency Management

Community Adaptation

an agreement detailing the timeline

Agency to finance several large-scale

Program

and responsibilities of each party and

green infrastructure improvements in

Because traditional grey infrastructure

discuss the best options for the property,

the GRD. For example, the Mirabeau

has limited capacity, New Orleans has

after which the contractor proceeds

Water Garden is a 25-acre site that

also adopted another approach to ex-

with the installation. 20 NORA requires

will have the capacity to store up to

panding stormwater storage: capturing

contractors to offer a 1-year warranty

10 million gallons of stormwater once

rainfall in residential neighborhoods.

on all labor and materials except for

complete. 13 In addition, NORA’s past

NORA received an initial allocation of

permeable paving systems, which have

work on vacant lots, which tend to be

$5.9 million in NDRC funds to imple-

a 2-year warranty. The timeline from

located in low-lying, flood-prone areas,

ment the Community Adaptation

application to installation currently

strengthened the city’s NDRC applica-

Program (CAP), which provides up to

ranges from 3 to 6 months depending

tion, said Knudsen.14 As of May 2022,

$25,000 to low- to moderate-income

on how quickly homeowners complete

the city had developed green infrastruc-

homeowners within the GRD for storm-

the required documentation and the

ture projects on 45 vacant NORA lots

water management interventions. 17

availability of the selected contractor.

as part of the Pontilly Neighborhood

According to Knudsen, CAP has three

The completion timeline also depends

Stormwater Network within the neigh-

main goals: educating the public about

on homeowners’ ability to schedule

borhoods of Pontchartrain Park and

green infrastructure, storing stormwater,

appointments with designers and final-

Gentilly Woods. In addition, the city

and developing a green infrastructure

ize plans. NORA exercises flexibility

has invested more than $1 million in

workforce and industry. 18

in scheduling for homeowners with

CDBG-DR funds to transform 42 other

extensive family responsibilities, health

vacant lots into rain gardens, deten-

Following an extensive outreach cam-

challenges, or multiple jobs. This

tion basins, and passive green space

paign to educate homeowners about

process empowers homeowners to be

that serve as both stormwater manage-

CAP and green infrastructure strategies

decisionmakers and places them in the

ment systems and public amenities. 15

such as rain barrels, stormwater planter

driver’s seat of resilience. 21

Although the city allocated the bulk of

boxes, infiltration trenches, and perme-

the NDRC funding to large projects in

able paving systems, NORA received

Once the work is complete, residents

the GRD that improve parks, streets,

approximately 180 applications for

receive a manual explaining how to

open spaces, and vacant lots, the city

the program in summer 2018.19 Upon

maintain the green design elements.

23

Although homeowners are required

that the city’s grey infrastructure system

most meaningful project and have the

to maintain the green infrastructure

can pump a half-inch of rainfall per

greatest impact because of its direct

for only 5 years, NORA hopes that

hour, and the network of pipes can

engagement with homeowners” and

the installations will be maintained in

store a half-inch. Each CAP project is

the program’s ability to bring green

perpetuity. NORA aims for the green in-

designed to detain roughly 3,000 to

infrastructure directly to the neighbor-

frastructure elements to “become part

3,500 gallons of water. As of May 2022,

hoods where people live. One of the

of the homeowner’s yard and landscape

CAP had installed green infrastructure

most significant benefits of the green

and be maintained just the way they

on 173 properties and plans to reach

infrastructure, according to Knudsen,

would cut the grass or do other types of

its goal of nearly 200 properties by fall

is psychological. People learn to un-

yard maintenance.” 22 NORA returns to

2022. Knudsen said, “It would be

derstand and appreciate the value

the properties periodically to monitor

ideal if each property in the city could

of investing in the resilience of their

the green infrastructure throughout

manage the first inch of water on its

homes and neighborhoods. In addition,

the 5-year period.23

own before we actually get to the pump-

these projects contribute to placemaking

ing system…[which would] double the

and pride among residents who know

NORA also coordinates with the city

first-hour capacity of the stormwater

that their properties are better suited

to run CAP’s workforce development

management system.” A $25,000

to withstand the challenges of climate

program, which recruits contractors to

investment in green infrastructure

change. 26

install green infrastructure and train

on residential property through CAP

other installers to help maintain the

captures, on average, more than the

Managing Expectations

projects. As Knudsen explained, “It does

first inch of rainfall. Once complete,

NORA strives to set appropriate expec-

not do us a whole lot of good to install

the CAP projects collectively will be

tations among homeowners about CAP’s

all of these things that are both pub-

able to detain up to 700,000 gallons of

capabilities. Homeowners may expect

licly and privately owned across the city

stormwater. Because of the program’s

the green infrastructure interventions

without a workforce and cohort of small success and the widespread interest

in their yards to prevent all flooding,

businesses to realize the economic ben-

it has generated in Gentilly, NORA is

whereas the interventions actually are

efits of the installation… [and] to help

actively collaborating with the city to

designed to “add some amount of stor-

us in the future with the maintenance

allocate additional NDRC funds to CAP

age that will change the way stormwater

for these types of systems.” 24

and expand the program to finance

is handled on their property,” Knudsen ex-

green infrastructure projects on more

plained. Some yards improved through

Measuring Impact

residential properties.25

CAP still flooded following heavy

The CAP-funded improvements to

rainfall but nevertheless managed to

homeowners’ properties contribute to

Although most of the NDRC funds

capture approximately 3,000 gallons of

the city’s overall capacity to collect and

went toward larger projects in the

stormwater. Homeowners must obtain

store stormwater. Knudsen indicated

city, said Knudsen, “CAP may be the

flood insurance to qualify for CAP, and

they must keep the policy active during

the compliance period. Obtaining

flood insurance serves as “an acknowl-

edgment that any improvements made

through our program will not be able

to prevent flooding in all circumstanc-

es,” Knudsen said. At the same time,

Authority the increased cost of premiums under

Risk Rating 2.0, the National Flood

Insurance Program’s new pricing meth-

odology, can be challenging for many

low- to moderate-income households

and seniors with fixed incomes. 27

In addition, NORA has identified a

need for an economic impact analysis to

quantify the benefit of green infrastruc-

ture investments for homeowners and

neighborhoods. Knudsen observed that

Photo courtesy of New Orleans Redevelopment it is difficult to calculate the individual

The city of New Orleans has transformed several vacant lots into detention basins and rain gardens with vegetation that can retain stormwater before it overwhelms pumps.

and combined economic value of

24

theme in these planning documents

is addressing the needs of Norfolk

communities that are simultaneously

experiencing economic, social, and

environmental distress. 33 The St. Paul’s

Area of Norfolk is one example of such a

community.

The St. Paul’s Area not only has been

disconnected from the economic op-

portunities of the adjacent downtown

but also has experienced the negative

effects of severe weather as well as the

deterioration of its housing stock and

neighborhood infrastructure.34 Ac-

cording to the 2012–2016 American

Community Survey 5-year estimates,

the average income of neighborhood

residents is less than $30,000, and

more than 50 percent of residents in

Photo courtesy of City of Norfolk

New roads raised above the floodplain around the future site of the new Tidewater Gardens will improve the area, which is more than 90 per-connectivity between the St. Paul’s Area and downtown Norfolk.

cent African-American, live below the

federal poverty level. In addition, the

capturing approximately 3,000 gallons

that generates jobs for the region and

St. Paul’s Area has the region’s high-

of water per property over the lifetime

attracts new residents and businesses.

est concentration of public housing.

of the improvements. According to

Over the past few decades, however, the

Numerous units fall within a 100-year

Knudsen, capturing just an additional

city’s waterfront location has become a

floodplain and have experienced severe

half-inch of stormwater could have “a

major weakness because of an increase

flooding because of their location on

monumental impact” on the degree

in major storms, land subsidence due

top of the filled-in Newton Creek.35

of damage to a particular home or

to sea level rise, and flooding. Recur-

Flooding in the St. Paul’s Area has be-

community. For example, if the CAP

rent storms have disrupted the city,

come so intense that it occasionally has

improvements decrease water levels

requiring action plans that address the

hindered children’s access to school.36

from 5 inches to 4 inches, then “we’re

natural, social, and economic risks of

According to Susan Perry, director of

actively decreasing the amount of stand-

environmental vulnerability. 30

Norfolk’s Department of Housing and

ing water, … and there’s probably some

Community Development, this flood-

massive economic benefit that’s accru-

In recent years, Norfolk has developed

ing was one of the primary concerns

ing to property owners in that area,”

climate resilience strategies that focus

residents articulated during commu-

Knudsen stated.28

on environmental justice in communi-

nity engagement activities.37 Following

ties that have been disproportionately

visioning sessions, Norfolk initiated the

Advancing Resilience

affected by severe weather. In 2013,

St. Paul’s Area Transformation Project,

and Environmental

the Rockefeller Foundation selected

which advances its resilience goals and

Equity in Norfolk

Norfolk for the 100RC network, which

helps realize Norfolk’s commitment to

According to the National Oceanic

supported the development of a multi-

environmental equity. 38

and Atmospheric Administration, the

pronged resilience strategy to improve

Hampton Roads region in Virginia

grey and green infrastructure. 31 The

A Resilient Vision for

ranks second only to New Orleans in

strategy focuses on advancing initiatives

the St. Paul’s Area

its risk of harm from sea level rise.29

that enhance citizen connectivity and

Plans for the St. Paul’s Area material-

Norfolk, a port city and hub of the

access to information and technology,

ized thanks to a $250,000 HUD Choice

Hampton Roads region, has sustained

deconcentrate poverty, and improve so-

Neighborhoods Initiative Planning

the highest rate of sea level rise on the

cial cohesion.32 The resilience strategy

grant awarded in 2011. The grant

east coast since 1930. With 144 miles of

has also complemented other planning

funded an extensive community par-

shoreline and an established network

processes that are guiding sustainable

ticipation process involving residents

of waterways, the city is especially

growth in the city such as a green in-

and officials from both the city and

vulnerable. Norfolk’s economic health

frastructure plan and plaNorfolk2030,

the Norfolk Redevelopment and Hous-

relies heavily on its port, a vital asset

Norfolk’s General Plan. A consistent

ing Authority.39 This process laid the

25

groundwork for the 2014 Transforma-

Tidewater Gardens

to manage stormwater runoff through

tion Plan, which focuses on Tidewater

Built in 1955, the 618 units of Tidewater

constructed wetlands.47 The Blue/Gre-

Gardens, the first of the three public

Gardens, encompassing 44 acres, have

enway will add more than 10.6 million

housing communities selected for rede-

substantially deteriorated, and these

cubic feet of stormwater storage, and

velopment and the one most at risk of

negative physical conditions compound

the addition of a wide bioswale and

severe flooding. The city successfully ar-

the residents’ distressed economic

native plants will help absorb excess

ticulated its plan for the St. Paul’s Area

situation.44 The 714 new housing units

rainfall and tidal waters. The city will

to become a mixed-use, mixed-income,

called for in the plan — which include

uncover the former creek and restore

and climate-resilient community in its

260 replacement, 238 affordable,

it as the main water channel to return

application for a $30 million CNI grant

and 216 market-rate units — will be

the watershed to its natural state. 48

awarded in 2019.40

relocated outside of and/or elevated

The Blue/Greenway will be designed

above the floodplain, away from the

around this central water channel and

The St. Paul’s Area Transformation

historic but flood-prone creek beds. 45

several interconnected basins. Wet

Project advances the third goal of the

The new units will be environmentally

ponds and dry detention areas along

city’s resilience strategy to connect

sustainable with features that meet the

the central water channel will offer

communities, deconcentrate poverty,

criteria for certification by Enterprise

more stormwater storage capacity. 49

and strengthen neighborhoods. 41 The

Green Communities, including

Trails in the Blue/Greenway will con-

project exemplifies Norfolk’s commit-

ENERGY STAR® appliances; floodproof

nect the park to the Elizabeth River

ment to environmental justice through

designs that require exit doors and

Trail and the waterfront as well as

resilient features that protect residents

central heating and air equipment to

other parks where residents can enjoy

from environmental harm, including the

be installed above flood elevations;

a “beautiful recreational amenity,”

Blue/Greenway, a resilient park that will

and adequate backup generators

according to Perry. 50 These spaces will

also serve as a valuable community asset. 42

and water systems.46

also include features that Tidewater

The comprehensive redevelopment of

Gardens residents requested, such as

the Tidewater Gardens public housing

The city of Norfolk will transform a

learning, relaxation, and family activity

community advances environmental

portion of the former Tidewater

spaces along with art that captures the

equity by making the area’s housing,

Gardens site into the Blue/Greenway,

community’s rich history.51 Some pe-

roads, public utilities, and community

a 26-acre resilient park that will include

destrian pathways will be constructed

amenities more sustainable. 43

active and passive green spaces intended

above stormwater berms, and large

Photo courtesy of Rebuild Paradise Foundation

House designs such as the one above from the Rebuild Paradise Foundation’s floor plan library use noncombustible building materials and follow local guidelines for defensible space surrounding the lot.

26

meadows will serve as both recreation

neighborhoods with a poverty rate of

making the forests even more prone to

spaces and stormwater detention.52

less than 40 percent. 57

fires. Roughly 90 percent of Paradise

residents live in areas classified as Very

In addition to housing, the St. Paul’s

Residents expressed concerns about

High Fire Hazard Severity Zones by

Area Transformation Project pro-

disruptions posed by relocation dur-

California’s Office of the State Fire

vides critically needed infrastructure

ing the redevelopment of Tidewater

Marshal. The Camp Fire displaced ap-

improvements intended to connect

Gardens.58 In response, the city crafted

proximately 40,000 people and caused

residents to additional economic op-

a People First initiative offering inten-

the town’s population to plunge by 82

portunities. St. Paul’s Boulevard is a

sive supportive services for all public

percent. Seniors were especially likely

major north-south corridor that has

housing residents. An assigned case

to relocate at least 30 miles away from

long acted as a barrier to downtown’s

manager assists Tidewater Gardens

Paradise.62 Nearly 40 percent of the

economic opportunity, neighborhoods,

residents with relocation, education,

population in the fire-affected areas of

resources, and amenities because few

health, employment, financial wellness,

Butte County, which includes Paradise,

streets connect it to St. Paul’s Area. 53

and other services. To finance People

consisted of low- to moderate-income

With the support of a $14.4 million

First, Norfolk created a dedicated,

households.63 The town’s Long-Term

U.S. Department of Transportation

citywide tax increase that raises approxi-

Community Recovery Plan presents best

Better Utilizing Investments to Lever-

mately $3.5 million annually to support

practices for fire resilience and outlines

age Development grant, the city will

Tidewater Gardens residents. People

several strategies, including improving

upgrade the entire street network of

First will provide these services for 5

evacuation routes and clearing trees to

Tidewater Gardens to enhance east-

years after residents relocate to ensure

improve safety.64 Community organiza-

west connections on roads that are

that they are stable and thriving. 59 Thus

tions, the state, and the town of Paradise

multimodal, raised above the flood-

far, the People First initiative is yielding

have also offered residents financial and

plain, and designed around historic

positive outcomes, with 73 percent of

technical support to help them return

trees to aid stormwater management.

residents employed (47% at baseline) and rebuild their homes.

The plan calls for the realignment of

and resident annual income increas-

Church Street, a historic commercial

ing by more than $8,000. As of July

Long-Term Community

corridor for the area’s African-Amer-

2022, 91 percent of Tidewater Gardens

Recovery Plan

ican community, to restore its former

residents had health insurance and had

After a series of community listen-

status as a vibrant, mixed-use hub of

access to services to manage their chronic

ing sessions and public engagement

activity.54 The realignment of the street

health conditions. The initiative focuses

activities, the Paradise Town Council

grid, the phased housing redevelop-

on all members of the household and

adopted the Long-Term Community

ment, and the construction of the

connects adults and children with

Recovery Plan in 2019, which outlines

Blue/Greenway are happening concur-

high-quality educational opportunities

39 initiatives to improve safety and re-

rently and are slated for completion

and early learning programs, creating

silience to wildfires. 65 According to Kate

by 2025.55

resilient families of the future.60

Anderson, housing program manager

in the town’s Community Development

People First

Paradise, California,

Department, funding constraints allow

The existing residents of Tidewater

Recovers From Wildfires

some projects to move faster than others,

Gardens at the time of the redevelop-

Climate change not only contributes to

but the town is learning which projects

ment may return to St. Paul’s Area by

rising sea levels but also exacerbates the

will best mitigate future disasters.66

accepting a direct replacement unit on-

risk and severity of wildfires, especially

site, for which they receive preference

in drought-stricken areas.61 Located

Residents and local officials expressed

for 5 years; exercising the right of first

in northern California in the foothills

the need to widen roads as well as

refusal for the onsite affordable units

of the Sierra Nevada mountains, the

pedestrian and bicycle pathways to

and using their housing choice vouch-

town of Paradise is recovering from

accommodate emergency vehicles dur-

ers; or moving into replacement units

the November 2018 Camp Fire that

ing an evacuation.67 The town aims to

that will be built in offsite private de-

destroyed 80 percent of the town,

repair and widen 93 miles of damaged

velopments that will have project-based

including nearly 90 percent of its single-

roads to ease traffic flow and facilitate

rental assistance. 56 According to Perry,

family detached homes and more than

rapid evacuations. Construction is

early data from the redevelopment

70 percent of its multifamily attached

already underway and is slated for com-

process indicate that nearly 55 percent

units. Years of drought and high tem-

pletion in 2025.68 In March 2022, the

of Tidewater Gardens residents would

peratures have heightened the region’s

town completed the Pentz Road Safe

like to return to the new community

risk of wildfires. Estimates suggest that

Routes to School project, which added

and that 85 percent of relocated resi-

18 million trees died in California

turn lanes and a wide path for pedes-

dents, as of June 2022, have moved to

in 2018, increasing fuel load and

trians and bicyclists along a high-traffic

27

households return home to Paradise

and help our community with our

infrastructure, economic, workforce, and

mitigation needs, ” Anderson stated.76

Another source of funding is the

Rebuild Paradise Foundation, a local

nonprofit formed in response to the

Camp Fire, which has disbursed $1.5

million to eligible homeowners through

two grant programs as of May 2022.77

The Missing Middle Grant reimburses

residents up to $5,000 for preconstruc-

tion land surveys, water connections,

and architecture and engineering costs,

which typically are not covered by insur-

ance. To be reimbursed, residents must

obtain a building permit and provide

Photo courtesy of Rebuild Paradise Foundation

With a fully noncombustible design that uses steel for framing, joists, and roofing, Q Cabins provide a fire-safe receipts. Because nearly half of the

alternative to traditional stick-built homes.

septic tanks in Paradise have been dam-

aged, the Rebuild Paradise Foundation

corridor that previously was unsafe for

Paradise. The town used the funds to

offers a Septic Infrastructure Grant that

area elementary school students walk-

provide developers at least $250,000 in

provides homeowners with up to $7,500

ing to and from school. In addition to

deferred interest loans to rebuild mul-

to repair or replace septic systems. 78

improved walkability, the new sidewalk

tifamily housing for displaced seniors,

Although the funding is limited to

serves as an evacuation route.69 The

low- to moderate-income families, and

preconstruction costs, the foundation in-

project also undergrounded all utility

people with disabilities. 74 The state also

structs residents on finding contractors. 79

lines and removed overhead cables

allocated more than $205 million in

and utility poles, thereby reducing fire

CDBG-DR funds to the California Owner-

One local company, Design Horizons,

hazards along the street. 70 Wooden

Occupied Housing Rehabilitation

is on the ground in Paradise construct-

utility poles are prone to falling in high

and Reconstruction (OOR) program,

ing noncombustible, prefabricated

winds, which can cause them to spark

which provides grants of up to $200,000

housing based on its model Q Cabin.

and cause fires. To eliminate this risk,

to homeowners affected by the 2017

Traditional stick-built homes are easily

the town is working with local utility

and 2018 fires. The CDBG-DR funding

engulfed in flames through embers

companies to place all utility lines un-

also covers infrastructure development,

that seep through window frames and

derground by 2025.71 One month after

and, according Anderson, the state has

between roof shingles; the Q Cabin,

the Camp Fire, the town also added

received many funding requests for in-

however, lacks these access points. 80 The

fire-resistant concrete pipes to replace

frastructure projects from jurisdictions

100 percent noncombustible Q Cabin

damaged pipes that caused roadways

both inside and outside the bounds of

uses steel for the studs, floor joists, roof,

to cave in. By July 2021, the town had

the burn scar. 75 Since 1995, Paradise

and interior framing, along with several

removed more than 88,000 trees that

has administered its own OOR program

layers of noncombustible siding and

could obstruct roads and evacuation

supported by HUD HOME and CDBG

concrete composite sheathing encapsu-

routes if they caught on fire.72

program funding and state redevelop-

lating the building envelope. 81 Because

ment agency and CalHome funding. In

of its prefabricated design, a typical Q

Programs Help Property

2020, Paradise received $23.5 million in Cabin costs less than $275 per square

Owners Rebuild

CalHome Disaster Assistance funds for

foot and can be constructed much

The long-term recovery plan indicates

its OOR program to issue low-interest,

faster than stick-built homes.82 Once

that the town will seek funding to help

deferred loans of up to $150,000 for

the foundation is set, a Q Cabin can be

homeowners and property owners

residents to rehabilitate and reconstruct

constructed in 7 days.83 Design Hori-

construct housing using fire-resistant

their homes. As of May 2022, the town’s

zons meets with homeowners to create

materials. 73 Federal and state funding has

OOR program had helped residents

the home on a computer, using 3D

been a critical source of aid. In January

build 15 homes and begin construc-

modeling software to incorporate their

2020, the state of California received

tion on 20 more. “Ultimately, we hope

preferences for layout, finishes, and

more than $1 billion in CDBG-DR funds,

that the combined [CDBG-DR and

add-on features such as decks, patios,

of which $55.9 million was allocated to

CalHome] funding will help numerous

and garages. Design Horizons ensures

28

that the styles and floorplans comply

between roads and vegetation. In addi-

improving infrastructure and afford-

with local standards, and the company

tion, upcoming guidelines will stipulate

able housing.94 Paradise’s Long-Term

can help homeowners obtain building

setbacks for trees to further reduce

Community Recovery Plan underpins

permits to begin construction.84 As of

roadway hazards during an evacuation.90

its multifaceted approach to fire

June 2022, at least two Q Cabins have

The state of California is in the process

resilience through innovative building

been built in Paradise. 85

of determining the return on invest-

designs and strengthened visible and

ment for projects that might produce

invisible infrastructure. Local initiatives

The Rebuild Paradise Foundation’s

strong outcomes in economic and

offering technical and financial support

floor plan library allows residents to

workforce development. 91 As outlined in

are rejuvenating Paradise and support-

choose from several master-planned

the long-term recovery plan, the town

ing steady repopulation, making it the

designs that comply with the local

will offer residents and property owners

fastest growing town in the state.95 As

wildland-urban interface (WUI) code, a

guidance on choosing local builders

the impacts of climate change continue

standard building practice that estab-

and contractors knowledgeable in

to be felt worldwide, adapting to and

lishes requirements for setbacks, density,

green building design techniques. The

mitigating climate change risks are

vegetation, and building materials in

town intends to partner with the U.S.

imperative for a resilient future. Com-

areas at risk of wildfire.86 The designs

Green Building Council’s Leadership in

prehensive, thoughtful local strategies

incorporate noncombustible materials

Energy and Environmental Design pro-

that engage community residents with

for roofing and gutters, and one plan

gram to establish standards for green

an eye to addressing vulnerabilities are

uses insulated concrete for additional

building design in fire hazard commu-

essential to achieving that future.

fire protection. Although the plans

nities. Additional efforts are underway

are free to access online, homeowners

to create incentives for town residents,

1 City of New Orleans. 2017. “Climate Action for a

must pay for a site plan specific to

contractors, builders, and developers to

Resilient New Orleans,” 8.

their property’s topography and other

promote fire-resistant construction that

2 City of New Orleans. 2014. “Exhibit A: Executive

Summary City of New Orleans, ” 28.

unique features. 87 These floor plans

exceeds WUI requirements.92

3 Ibid, 25.

save residents not only time but also

4 The American Society of Landscape Architects. n.d.

$5,000 to $10,000 in design costs, noted

A Resilient Future

“Gentilly Community Adaptation Program”; City of New Orleans. 2010. “A Plan for the 21st Century,

Jen Goodlin, executive director of the

Although considerable work remains,

Chapter 12: Adapt to Thrive: Environmental Steward-

Rebuild Paradise Foundation. As of May

the projects in New Orleans, Norfolk,

ship, Disaster Risk Reduction, and Climate Change,”

2022, more than 80 properties had per-

and Paradise serve as strong examples

1; Email correspondence with Seth Knudsen, 12 July

2022.

mits based on the designs, and roughly

of local rebuilding efforts to reduce

5 City of New Orleans. 2015. “Resilient New Orleans:

half of these were either complete or

climate change risks and incorporating

Strategic actions to shape our future city, ” 22-3; Waggonner & Ball Architects. 2013. “Greater New Orleans

nearing completion. As of May 2022, an

resilience strategies into the existing

Urban Water Plan,” 7.

additional 130 homeowners were in the

built environment. The HUD funding

6 Waggonner & Ball Architects, 78-9.

process of obtaining a permit and await-

allocated to these communities has

7 City of New Orleans 2014, 9; City of New Orleans

ing site plans. 88

been vital for launching these projects.

2015, 24.

8 City of New Orleans 2015, 24; City of New Orleans

New Orleans directed most of the HUD

2017, 8.

The various approaches and programs

NDRC funding in the GRD to large

9 City of New Orleans 2014, 10.

to help Paradise property owners

infrastructure projects, but CAP makes

10 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

rebuild their housing have helped speed

the concept of green infrastructure

ment. 2020. “National Disaster Resilience”; City of New Orleans 2014, 24; 28; City of New Orleans. 2020.

construction. Goodlin reported that, as

more tangible because residents see its

“National Disaster Resilience: Proposed Substantial

of May 2022, the town had rebuilt 23

positive impact in yards throughout the

Amendment 1, Proposed Adjustments and Realloca-

tion,” 7.

percent of its original housing stock,

neighborhood. NORA’s direct engage-

11 City of New Orleans 2014, 38.

totaling 1,358 single-family homes and

ment with residents enrolled in CAP

12 U.S. Census Bureau. 2019. “2019 American Community

263 multifamily units, with 2,000 more

ensures the long-term maintenance

Survey 5-Year Estimates” (data.census.gov). Accessed

18 July 2022; City of New Orleans 2014, 39.

building permit applications for single-

of the green infrastructure features

13 Interview with Seth Knudsen; City of New Orleans.

family homes in the pipeline. 89

installed on homeowners’ properties

2018. “Mirabeau Water Garden”; City of New Orleans.

and residents’ willingness to share the

2021. “Mirabeau Water Garden Drainage Improve-

Looking Ahead

ments and Green Infrastructure Project.”

benefits of stormwater management

14 Interview with Seth Knudsen, 25 May 2022; City of

As more funding becomes available,

with others.93 In Norfolk, the St. Paul’s

New Orleans 2014, 21.

Paradise will implement an early warn-

Area Transformation Project — guided by

15 Interview with Seth Knudsen, 25 May 2022.

ing system incorporating mobile alerts

Norfolk’s resilience strategy — reconnects

16 City of New Orleans. 2017. “Mirabeau Water Garden

Project.”

and sirens to notify residents of hazard-

public housing residents to the city’s

17 Interview with Seth Knudsen; The New Orleans

ous events. Paradise will also increase

downtown and, through innovative

Redevelopment Authority. “Community Adaptation

the walkability of its downtown and

stormwater management techniques,

Program” (www.noraworks.org/programs/land/

community). Accessed 1 June 2022; The New Orleans add defensible space and fire breaks

advances environmental equity by

Redevelopment Authority. 2018. “Community

29

Adaptation Program 1-pager.”

45 Email correspondence with Susan Perry, 19 July 2022;

71 Town of Paradise 2019, 41; 54; “Undergrounding of

18 Interview with Seth Knudsen.

City of Norfolk. n.d. “Norfolk, VA CNI Implementa-

Utilities,” Make it Paradise website (makeitparadise.

tion Grant Application – Tidewater Gardens,” 102;

org/recovery-projects/undergrounding-of-utilities/).

19 Ibid.

Norfolk Redevelopment and Housing Authority.

Accessed 7 June 2022.

20 The New Orleans Redevelopment Authority. n.d.

“Overview and Choice Neighborhood Initiative”

72

“Community Adaptation Program, Project Flow

Make It Paradise, “Completed Recovery Projects.”

(nrha.us/redevelopment-initiatives/st-pauls-area-

Chart.”

transformation/overview-and-choice-neighborhood-

73 Town of Paradise 2019, 36.

21 Interview with Seth Knudsen.

initiative/). Accessed 1 June 2022.

74 Town of Paradise. “CDBG-DR Multifamily Housing

22 Ibid.

46 Interview with Susan Perry; Enterprise Green Com-

Program” (www.townofparadise.com/housing/page/

munities. 2020. “2020 Enterprise Green Communities

cdbg-dr-multifamily-housing-program). Accessed 31

23 “Community Adaptation Program, Project Flow

Criteria, ” 10–1; 110–11.

May 2022; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Chart.”

47 Interview with Susan Perry; City of Norfolk 2018, 102;

Development. n.d. “CDBG-DR Disaster Allocation.”

24 Interview with Seth Knudsen; The New Orleans Rede-

City of Norfolk, “St. Paul’s Blue/Greenway.”

75 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

velopment Authority 2018.

48 Ibid; VHB 2020, 10.

ment. “CDBG-DR Disaster Allocation”; Butte 211.

25 Interview with Seth Knudsen.

49 City of Norfolk, “St. Paul’s Blue/Greenway.”

“Camp Fire. Rebuilding & Housing Construction”

26 Ibid.

(211campfire.org/rebuilding-housing-construction/).

50 Interview with Susan Perry; “Norfolk, VA CNI Imple-

27 Ibid; Email correspondence with Seth Knudsen, 26

Accessed 31 May 2022; Email correspondence with Kate

mentation Grant Application – Tidewater Gardens,” 3.

May 2022; Federal Emergency Management Agency.

Anderson, 26 May 2022.

51

“Risk Rating 2.0: Equity in Action” (fema.gov/flood-

“U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-

76 Email correspondence with Kate Anderson, 31 May

insurance/risk-rating). Accessed 19 July 2022.

ment. 2018. “Choice Neighborhoods FY2018 Imple-

mentation Grant Award,” 4; Email correspondence 2022; Economic & Planning Systems, Inc. and Industrial

28 Interview with Seth Knudsen.

with Susan Perry, 19 July 2022.

Economics Incorporated 2021, 94.

29 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

52 City of Norfolk, “St. Paul’s Blue/Greenway.”

77 Interview with Jen Goodlin, 25 May 2022; Rebuild

“Hampton Roads’ Sea Level Rise Adaptation Advances

Paradise Foundation. “Who Is Rebuild Paradise?”

53 Interview with Susan Perry.

on Multiple Fronts” (coast.noaa.gov/states/stories/

(www.rebuildparadise.org/). Accessed 7 June 2022.

sea-level-rise-adaptation-advances-on-multiple-fronts.

54 Ibid; VHB 2020, 9; “Norfolk, VA CNI Implementation

78 Rebuild Paradise Foundation. 2021. “Annual Report

html). Accessed 8 April 2022.

Grant Application – Tidewater Gardens, ” 3; 67.

for 2021, ” 3; Interview with Jen Goodlin; Rebuild 55

30 City of Norfolk. n.d. “Norfolk Resilience Strategy,”

Interview with Susan Perry; VHB. 2020; Norfolk

Paradise. “Septic Infrastructure Grant” (www.rebuild-

14; 18.

Redevelopment and Housing Authority. “Housing”

(nrha.us/redevelopment-initiatives/st-pauls-area-trans-

paradise.org/septic-infrastructure-grant/). Accessed 31 City of Norfolk. 2016. “Norfolk Vision 2100,” 2;

formation/housing/). Accessed 7 June 2022.

27 May 2022.

“Norfolk Resilience Strategy, ” 28.

79

56 Interview with Susan Perry; St. Paul’s Area. 2018.

Interview with Jen Goodlin.

32 “Norfolk Resilience Strategy, ” 27.

“Choice Neighborhood Initiative (CNI) Implementa-

80 CBS News. 2022. “After the Camp Fire: Rebuilding

33 City of Norfolk. 2018. “Choice Neighborhoods FY2018

tion 2018: Resident Community Meeting Master Plan

Paradise,” Sunday Morning, 29 May; The Q Cabin Kits.

Implementation Grant Tidewater Gardens/St. Paul’s

Vision” ; St. Paul’s Area Transformation. “Housing”

“Why Q Cabin Kits?” (theqcabin.com/). Accessed 6

Area, ” 2; City of Norfolk. 2013. “PlaNorfolk 2030”; (www.stpaulsdistrict.org/housing). Accessed 29 June June 2022.

City of Norfolk. 2018. “Green Infrastructure Plan

2022; St. Paul’s Area Transformation. “People First”

81 Josh Niland. 2021. “One Northern California designer

for Norfolk: Building Resilient Communities”; VHB.

(www.stpaulsdistrict.org/people-first). Accessed 29

is replenishing housing stock in the region with new,

2020. “St. Paul’s Area/Tidewater Gardens Choice

June 2022.

fire-resistant prefabs,” Archinect News, 6 August.

Neighborhood Implementation (CNI), Environmental

57 Interview with Susan Perry; City of Norfolk. 2022.

Assessment,” 60.

82

“This Month in St. Paul’s.”

The Q Cabin Kits. 2018. “Rebuild Quickly and Af-

fordably with Q Cabins” (theqcabin.com/tag/design-

34 City of Norfolk 2018, 29.

58 Correspondence from Susan Perry, 7 June 2022; Inter-

horizons/). Accessed 6 June 2022.

35 City of Norfolk 2018, 2; 29-30; 32-3; 66; City of Norfolk.

view with Susan Perry.

83 Niland.

“St. Paul’s Blue/Greenway” (storymaps.arcgis.com/

59 St. Paul’s Area Transformation, “People First”; Email

stories/cc361b66d93a4f88bc0fb78bf64bdb87). Ac-correspondence with Susan Perry, 19 July 2022.

84 Ibid; The Q Cabin Kits, “Why Q Cabin Kits?”

cessed 1 June 2022.

60 Email correspondence with Susan Perry, 19 July 2022.

85 Email correspondence with Jen Goodlin, 8 June 2022.

36 VHB 2020, 56.

61 Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. “Wildfires

86 Rebuild Paradise Foundation. “Residential Floor Plan

37 Interview with Susan Perry, 25 May 2022.

and Climate Change” (www.c2es.org/content/wild-

Library” (www.rebuildparadise.org/buildingplan/).

38 St. Paul’s Area Transformation. “History of St. Paul’s

fires-and-climate-change/). Accessed 9 June 2022.

Accessed 27 May 2022; Interview with Jen Goodlin;

Area” (stpaulsdistrict.org/history). Accessed 1 June 62 State of California Department of Housing and

Planning for Hazards. “Land Use Tool: Wildland-

2022.

Community Development. 2020. “State of California

Urban Interface Code (WUI Code)” (planningforhaz-

ards.com/wildland-urban-interface-code-wui-code).

39 Norfolk Redevelopment and Housing Authority City

Proposed Action Plan for Disaster Recovery,” 2-3; 18-9; Accessed 1 June 2022.

of Norfolk. 2014. “Extended St. Paul’s Area / Tidewa-

28; Economic & Planning Systems, Inc. and Industrial

ter Gardens I Norfolk, Virginia: Transformation Plan,”

Economics Incorporated. 2021. “Camp Fire Regional

87 Interview with Jen Goodlin; Rebuild Paradise Foundation,

10; 12.

Economic Impact Analysis,” 19; 41–2; 44.

“Residential Floor Plan Library.”

63 State of California Department of Housing and Com-

40 Norfolk Redevelopment and Housing Authority. “St.

88 Interview with Jen Goodlin.

Paul’s Area Transformation: Overview and Choice

munity Development 2020, 53–4.

89 Email correspondence with Jen Goodlin, 18 May 2022.

Neighborhood Initiative” (nrha.us/redevelopment-

64 Adele Peters. 2022 “A Smarter Urban Design Concept

90 Town of Paradise 2019, 20–41; Interview with Jen

initiatives/st-pauls-area-transformation/overview-and-

for a Town Decimated by Wildfires.”

Goodlin.

choice-neighborhood-initiative/). Accessed 1 June 65 Town of Paradise. 2019. “Long-Term Community

2022; City of Norfolk 2018, 2; 53; 66; Interview with

Recovery Plan,” 14; 19–21.

91 Email correspondence with Kate Anderson, 25 May

Susan Perry.

2022.

66 Email correspondence with Kate Anderson, 31 May

41 City of Norfolk. “Strategy Implementation Updates”

2022.

92 Town of Paradise 2019, 76.

(www.norfolk.gov/3617/Strategy-Implementation-

67 Town of Paradise 2019, 41–2.

93 Interview with Seth Knudsen.

Updates). Accessed 7 June 2022; St. Paul’s Area

68 “Town-Wide Road Improvements,” Make It Paradise

94 The City of Norfolk. “Office of Resilience”

Transformation. “About” (stpaulsdistrict.org/about).

website (makeitparadise.org/recovery-projects/town-

(www.norfolk.gov/3612/Office-of-Resilience).

Accessed 27 June 2022.

wide-road-improvements/). Accessed 7 June 2022.

Accessed 20 July 2022; City of Norfolk. “Goal 3:

42 VHB 2020, 10; 55-6.

69 “Completed Recovery Projects,” Make It Paradise

Advance Initiatives to Connect Communities,

43 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.

website (makeitparadise.org/completed-recovery-

Deconcentrate Poverty & Strengthen Neighborhoods”

2018. “Choice Neighborhoods FY2018 Implementation

projects/). Accessed 31 May 2022.

(www.norfolk.gov/4446/Goal-3-Advance-Initiatives-to-

Grant Award,” 4-5.

70 Rick Silva. 2022. “Town, school district celebrate Pentz

Connect-Co). Accessed 20 July 2022.

44 City of Norfolk 2018, 29; 104.

Road improvements,” Paradise Post, 21 May.

95 CBS News 2022.

30

Additional Resources

n Volume 32, issue 1 of Housing Policy Debate is a special issue devoted to the intersection of housing policy and climate change. The issue’s articles touch on topics such as evictions and disasters, home buyout programs, and disparities in climate adaptation. www.tandfonline.com/toc/rhpd20/32/1.

n “Climate and Housing Crisis: A Research Agenda for Urban Communities” (2021), by Michael P. Johnson, Patricio Belloy, Heather MacLean, and Sajani Kandel, proposes a research framework for cities to understand and respond to the intersection of the climate change and housing unaffordability crises, with special attention to the needs of the resi-

dents most vulnerable to these threats. www.lincolninst.edu/publications/working-papers/climate-housing-crisis.

n The Georgetown Climate Center hosts the Adaptation Clearinghouse, an online repository of resources to help policymakers and local communities implement climate adaptation strategies, including those related to energy and land use.

www.adaptationclearinghouse.org/.

n “Shifting to Zero: Zero Carbon Buildings Policy Toolkit: A Guide to Municipal Incentives and Policies to Drive Market Development of Zero Carbon Buildings in Washington State” (2020), by Shift Zero, offers local governments guidance on a mix of mandates and incentives to move buildings toward zero carbon emissions. Although the toolkit is geared specifically to the context of Washington State, its broader points also can be applied to other local contexts.

shiftzeroorg.files.wordpress.com/2020/12/shift-zero-policy-toolkit-2nd-edition.pdf.

n “Preliminary Outcome Evaluation: The National Disaster Resilience Competition’s Resilience Academies” (2016), by the Rockefeller Foundation, describes lessons learned from the Resilience Academies and Capacity Building Initiative and the progress jurisdictions have made in incorporating resilience into their National Disaster Resilience Competition

applications. www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/NDRC-Resilience-Academies-Evaluation-

Report-2016.pdf.

n “Springfield Climate Action & Resiliency Plan Vulnerability and Resilience” (2017), by Elisabeth Hamin, August Wil-liams-Eynon, and Catherine Ratte, discusses the geographic and socioeconomic vulnerabilities in communities in Springfield, Massachusetts, and presents recommendations for increasing resilience to flooding in high-risk areas.

scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1052&context=larp_grad_research.

n “5th Anniversary Report, Five Years Later: A Retrospective,” by the New York Governor’s Office of Storm Recovery, discusses New York State’s progress in housing, economic development, and green infrastructure projects in the aftermath of Superstorm Sandy and best practices for disaster planning. stormrecovery.ny.gov/sites/default/files/

crp/community/documents/Fifth%20Anniversary%20Report.pdf.

n “Living with Water Hampton: A Holistic Approach to Addressing Sea Level Rise and Resiliency” (2017), by Waggonner

& Ball Architects, presents progress made in the Hampton Roads region during Phase I of the Resilient Hampton initiative.

hampton.gov/DocumentCenter/View/20644/Resilient-Hampton-Phase-I-Report?bidId=.

For additional resources archive, go to www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/additional_resources_2022.html.

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Document Outline

Message From PD&R Leadership

Editor’s Note

The Role of Housing in Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

Opportunities To ReduceClimate Risks Through LandUse Regulations

Resiliency at Work

Additional Resources