Housing Needs of 

Native Hawaiians: 

A Report From the 

Assessment of American 

Indian, Alaska Native, 

and Native Hawaiian 

Housing Needs

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development  |  Office of Policy Development and Research

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Housing Needs of 

Native Hawaiians: 

A Report From the 

Assessment of American 

Indian, Alaska Native, 

and Native Hawaiian 

Housing Needs

Prepared for:

U.S. Department of Housing

and Urban Development

Office of Poicy Development

and Research

Washington, D.C.

Prepared by:

Kristen Corey, Econometrica, Inc.

Jennifer Biess, Urban Institute

Nancy Pindus, Urban Institute

Doray Sitko, Econometrica, Inc.

May 2017

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the many people in Hawaii, including individuals on the waiting list for a home land lease who participated in the household survey, homestead associations, and other organizational stakeholders who agreed to talk with us. The success of this research depended on their participation and forthright responses. Everyone’s contributions were richer in detail than it was possible to reflect in this report.

The State of Hawaii Department of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL) was a partner throughout this effort. The authors thank DHHL Director Jobie M.K. Masagatani and Dreana Kalili for providing input to survey questions, assisting in outreach, and facilitating access to DHHL 

staff and reports.

Econometrica, Inc., conducted initial outreach, secondary data analysis, and stakeholder interviews. Their knowledge of Hawaii’s history, geography, and housing market was critical to this report. The authors acknowledge Charles Hanson, who led the Econometrica team, and Richard Hilton, James Hedrick, Priscilla Prunella, and Katie Relihan, who contributed to the study design, analysis, and earlier drafts of this report.

NORC at the University of Chicago was responsible for the household survey that provides new information about Hawaiian Homes Commission Act beneficiary households on the waiting list for a Hawaiian home land lease. This complex effort was completed successfully and with cultural sensitivity. The authors thank Carol Hafford (project director), Suzanne Bard (survey director), Steven Pedlow (statistician), Joan Lipiec (field manager), Beth Fisher (survey director and analyst), Eram Khan (survey specialist), Ed Sipulski (production manager), and the Native Hawaiian community field interviewers for the important roles they played in outreach, sampling design, questionnaire development, survey administration, quality control, and analysis.

The authors also thank Urban Institute colleagues who contributed to this report. Chris Hayes advised the survey analysis team and provided ongoing technical review. Jasmine Simington and Lily Posey were key contributors to the survey analysis, and Eric Burnstein contributed to the analysis and to earlier drafts of this report. Tom Kingsley served as an advisor and reviewer throughout this study.

A panel of experts made valuable contributions to the research design and to this final report. 

Panel members included Laura R. Appelbaum (FirstPic, Inc.), Kauila Clark (Native Hawaiian Traditional Healing Center), Marvin Jones (Community Services at the Cherokee Nation—

retired), Miriam Jorgensen (The University of Arizona and The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development), Patricia Nie (Wells Fargo & Company), Deana K. O’Hara (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development [HUD], Office of Native American Programs [ONAP]), Don Shircel (Tanana Chiefs Conference), Pamala Silas (National American Indian Housing Council), and Malia Villegas (National Congress of American Indians). Early comments were also provided by Blake Kazama (Tlinglit-Haida Regional Housing Authority-retired) and Peter Morris (National Congress of American Indians).

Finally, Elizabeth Rudd and Paul Joice, the study’s government technical representatives from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development’s Office of Policy 

Development and Research, provided excellent guidance and oversight during this research effort. The authors also thank the staff of HUD ONAP and Kaiini Kimo Kaloi and Katrina Durbak of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Native Hawaiian Relations, who provided helpful comments on drafts of the report.

Disclaimer

The contents of this report are the views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development or the U.S. government.

Preface

In response to Congress’s 2009 mandate to assess Native American housing needs, the U.S. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) commissioned the Assessment of American Indian, Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian Housing Needs. The study produced five separate reports that together contain a comprehensive and authoritative body of information on the current state of housing conditions in Native American communities. 

The report on Native Hawaiians in Hawaii includes a wealth of specific information on housing conditions, including county-level differences, findings on housing and community preferences, and differences between Native Hawaiian households on the Hawaiian home lands and elsewhere in Hawaii.

The report’s principal finding is of a significant need for affordable housing among Native Hawaiians, especially among Native Hawaiians waiting for a lease on the Hawaiian home lands. Among households already living on the Hawaiian home lands, nearly all own their own homes and there is a much lower rate of cost burden than among Native Hawaiian households statewide. By contrast, compared with Native Hawaiian households statewide, households on the waiting list for a home lands lease are substantially worse off economically and much more likely to be cost burdened, to be overcrowded, and to lack complete plumbing and kitchens. The assessment also found that many Native Hawaiians strongly prefer housing and communities that support multigenerational and extended family (“ohana”) living and socializing, which is part of traditional Native Hawaiian culture.

Contents

Executive Summary ............................................................................................xi

Study Approach and Data Sources  .......................................................................................................xii

Key Findings .....................................................................................................................................................xiv

Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................................xviii

Section 1. Introduction .......................................................................................1

This Report and the Overall Study  .........................................................................................................2

The Structure of This Report  ....................................................................................................................3

Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution .............................................5

Historical Perspective ...................................................................................................................................5

Defining Native Hawaiian ............................................................................................................................6

The Total Native Hawaiian Population ...................................................................................................6

Hawaii’s Geography .......................................................................................................................................6

Population Trends by County ....................................................................................................................10

Mobility ...............................................................................................................................................................11

Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions ........................13

Key Findings  ....................................................................................................................................................13

Age Distribution ..............................................................................................................................................13

Household Size ................................................................................................................................................15

Household Type  .............................................................................................................................................15

Educational Attainment ...............................................................................................................................16

Labor Force Characteristics .......................................................................................................................17

Income and Poverty ......................................................................................................................................20

How the Native Hawaiian Population Fared in the Great Recession ..........................................22

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs ......................................................24

Key Findings .....................................................................................................................................................24

Housing Stock ..................................................................................................................................................25

Vacancy Rate ...................................................................................................................................................26

Homeownership ..............................................................................................................................................26

Housing Structure Type ...............................................................................................................................28

Housing Age and Size  .................................................................................................................................29

Housing Values and Rents ..........................................................................................................................30

Housing Problems and Needs: Framework ..........................................................................................31

Housing Problems and Needs: Quantity ...............................................................................................34

Housing Problems and Needs: Quality ..................................................................................................35

Housing Problems and Needs: Price.......................................................................................................36

Strategies To Deal With Affordability Challenges  ............................................................................37

Homelessness ..................................................................................................................................................38

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian  

Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List ......................40

Key Findings .....................................................................................................................................................40

The Hawaiian Home Lands Population ..................................................................................................41

Framing and Sources of Information  .....................................................................................................41

Social and Economic Conditions ..............................................................................................................42

Housing Conditions: Problems and Needs ...........................................................................................45

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List .......................................................50

Summarizing Differences Among Groups ............................................................................................56

Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs .....................................................58

Key Findings .....................................................................................................................................................58

Hawaiian Home Lands Assistance ...........................................................................................................59

Role of the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant and the Native American Housing 

Assistance and Self-Determination Act .................................................................................................68

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Section 7. Conclusions ........................................................................................72

The Native Hawaiian Population in Hawaii ...........................................................................................72

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List  .....................................................73

NAHASDA Assistance on the Hawaiian Home Lands ......................................................................73

Estimating the Need for NHHBG Assistance ......................................................................................74

Glossary ................................................................................................................76

List of Acronyms ..................................................................................................79

References ............................................................................................................80

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List of Exhibits

Exhibit ES.1. Definitions of Native Hawaiian ..........................................................................................xiii

Exhibit 2.1. Definitions of Native Hawaiian .............................................................................................7

Exhibit 2.2. Total Native Hawaiian Population, 2000 to 2010 ........................................................8

Exhibit 2.3. Counties in the State of Hawaii ...........................................................................................9

Exhibit 2.4. Land Area and Population Density, Hawaii and by County, 2010  ........................9

Exhibit 2.5. Population in Hawaii for the Total Population and the Native Hawaiian 

Population, 2000-2010 ..................................................................................................................................10

Exhibit 3.1. Share of Population by Age Group and Native Hawaiian  

Identification, 2010 ..........................................................................................................................................14

Exhibit 3.2. Educational Attainment by Native Hawaiian Identification in the 

State of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010 ....................................................................................................................17

Exhibit 3.3. Percent Change in Share by Educational Attainment Level and 

Native Hawaiian Identification, 2000 and 2006 to 2010 .................................................................18

Exhibit 3.4. Labor Force Characteristics for the State of Hawaii, by Native Hawaiian 

Identification, 2000 and 2006 to 2010 ...................................................................................................19

Exhibit 3.5. Economic Indicators for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, 

2008 and 2011 ...................................................................................................................................................22

Exhibit 3.6. Poverty Rate for Total and Native Hawaiian Populations, 2008 to 2011 ............23

Exhibit 4.1. Housing Stock in the State of Hawaii by County, 2000 and 2006 to 2010 .......25

Exhibit 4.2. Homeownership Rates for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, 

by County, 2010 ................................................................................................................................................27

Exhibit 4.3. Percent of Units by Housing Structure Type, Native Hawaiians and 

Residents of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010 ...........................................................................................................28

Exhibit 4.4. Percent of Native Hawaiian Households Living in Units Built Before 

1960, 2000 and 2006 to 2010 ....................................................................................................................30

Exhibit 4.5. Median Home Value for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, by 

Owner-Occupied Units, 2006 to 2010 ....................................................................................................31

Exhibit 4.6. Housing Problems and Needs Framework ....................................................................32

Exhibit 4.7. Percent of Households That Were Overcrowded, by Native Hawaiian 

Identification, 1980 to 2006 to 2010 ........................................................................................................35

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Exhibit 4.8. Size of the Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Homeless 

Population, 2015 ...............................................................................................................................................39

Exhibit 5.1. Household Composition in Hawaiian Home Lands Compared With All 

Native Hawaiian Households in the State of Hawaii, 2010 ...............................................................43

Exhibit 5.2. Labor Force Characteristics for the State of Hawaii by Native Hawaiian 

Identification and for the Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands,  

2006 to 2010 .....................................................................................................................................................44

Exhibit 5.3. Poverty Rates by Age Group for the Total Population in Sampled 

Hawaiian Home Lands and the Native Hawaiian Population in the State of Hawaii, 

2006 to 2010 .....................................................................................................................................................45

Exhibit 5.4. Extended Family Arrangements Among Waiting List Households .....................53

Exhibit 5.5. Households by Housing Unit Characteristics Among Waiting 

List Households ................................................................................................................................................54

Exhibit 5.6. Households by Condition Issues Among Waiting List Households .....................55

Exhibit 5.7. Comparison of Waiting List Households, Residents of the Sampled 

Hawaiian Home Lands, Native Hawaiians, and Residents of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010 

and 2014 to 2015 ..............................................................................................................................................57

Exhibit 7.1. Native Hawaiian Households Potentially Eligible for  

NAHASDA Assistance ....................................................................................................................................75

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Technical Appendixes

Published separately in volume 2.

Appendix A. Census Data

A1. American Community Survey

A2. Decennial Census

A3. Census Data Tables

Appendix B. Household Survey of Native Hawaiians on the Waiting List for a Lease on the Home Lands

B1. Sampling

B2. Response Rates and Weighting

B3. Survey Administration Procedures

B4. Household Survey Data Tables

B5. Native Hawaiian Household Survey Instrument

Appendix C. Stakeholder Interviews and Discussion Groups Selection

C1. Approach

C2. Interview Guide for Stakeholder Discussions

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Executive Summary

Executive Summary

sufficiency and well-being of the Native 

Hawaiian people, Congress established the 

Hawaiian Home Land Trust in 1921, a set-

aside of more than 200,000 acres of land, 

This report considers the housing needs 

via the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act 

and conditions of members of the 

(HHCA). The State of Hawaii Department 

Native Hawaiian community living in 

of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL), a state 

Hawaii, including housing characteristics, 

agency, manages the Hawaiian Home Land 

homeownership, and housing quantity, 

Trust, with oversight provided by the U.S. 

quality, and affordability. To provide 

Department of the Interior. HHCA provides 

a broader context for understanding 

eligible Native Hawaiians, those who are 

housing needs, the report describes 

50 percent or more Native Hawaiian by 

population growth and distribution and 

blood quantum, with the ability to live on 

also demographic, social, and economic 

designated trust land (referred to in this 

conditions and trends.

report as home lands), and provides 99-year 

As one of the United States’ indigenous 

homestead leases at an annual rental of $1.1 

peoples, Native Hawaiian people have 

Demand for homestead leases, which are 

a unique relationship with the federal 

primarily for residential purposes but are 

government and receive benefits from a 

also available for agricultural and pastoral 

unique form of housing assistance. Although 

uses, has consistently outstripped supply. 

the federal government does not maintain 

a formal government-to-government 

Housing for low-income HHCA beneficiaries 

relationship with the Native Hawaiian 

on the home lands is also supported through 

community as an organized, sovereign entity, 

the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant 

Congress has repeatedly acknowledged 

(NHHBG) program, which is authorized 

its special political and trust relationship 

under an amendment to the Native 

with the Native Hawaiian community 

American Housing Assistance and Self-

since the overthrow of the Kingdom of 

Determination Act (NAHASDA) of 1996, and 

Hawaii more than a century ago. As part 

is managed by DHHL.

of this relationship and to support the self-

1 

Blood quantum reflects ties to the Native Hawaiian political community ( Proposed Amendments to the Organic Act of the Territory of Hawaii: Hearings on H.R. 7257 Before the House Committee on the Territories, 66th Cong. 15, at 140 [1921]). As Congress explained, Congress “does not extend services to Native Hawaiians because of their race, but because of their unique status as the indigenous peoples of a once sovereign nation as to whom the United States has established a trust relationship.” 114 Stat. 2968 (2000) (Hawaiian Homelands Homeownership Act).

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Executive Summary

Study Approach and Data Sources

°  Lessee refers to someone who (1) has 

been awarded a lease on the home lands, 

The study approach used already existing 

(2) had a home lands lease transferred to 

data and new data collection to describe the 

them by the original leaseholder, or (3) 

conditions of the Native Hawaiian community 

succeeded to the lease after the death of 

and to present comparisons with the 

the original leaseholder. 

population of Hawaii as a whole. The following 

points describe the populations of interest.

•  The term  resident of Hawaii  refers to 

people who live in the state of Hawaii but 

•  Native Hawaiians in the United States 

who do not identify as Native Hawaiian. 

and, in particular, Native Hawaiians 

Exhibit ES.1 lists these definitions and 

living in the state of Hawaii. Because 

their sources. 

this study primarily used U.S. decennial 

census and American Community 

This report relies on several existing data 

Survey data to analyze time trends, the 

sources, primarily those provided by the 

report uses the U.S. Census Bureau’s 

U.S. Census Bureau and also two new data 

definition of Native Hawaiian. The total 

collection activities. Data products from 

Native Hawaiian population is defined 

the U.S. Census Bureau—the decennial 

to include respondents who identified 

censuses of 2000 and 2010 and the 

Hawaiian as their only race (termed  Native 

American Community Survey for the years 

Hawaiian alone) and those who identified 

2006 to 2010—form the basis for analysis 

themselves as being Hawaiian and also 

of trends in population, socioeconomic, 

belonging to one or more other races 

and housing conditions in Hawaii and 

(termed  Native Hawaiian multiracial).22 

for residents of sampled Hawaiian home 

lands. DHHL surveys of its lessees, the 

•  The population residing on the Hawaiian 

most recent of which were completed 

home lands. Because data for all 

in 2008 and 2014, provide additional 

indicators were not available for the Native 

information about residents of the 

Hawaiian population on all home lands, 

Hawaiian home lands. This information is 

the analysis of those living on the Hawaiian 

supplemented with the following new data 

home lands was limited to the total 

collection sources.

population living on the 20 most populous 

Hawaiian home lands communities. These 

1.  Semistructured interviews conducted 

20 home lands are home to 27,596 people, 

in July 2014 with key informants from 

nearly 90 percent of the total Hawaiian 

a range of stakeholder organizations 

home lands population. 

provided qualitative information about 

the housing market, housing stock, and 

•  HHCA beneficiaries and qualified 

housing-related challenges for Native 

Hawaiian home land lessees. 

Hawaiians in Hawaii in general and on the 

home lands. Discussions were held with 

°  Beneficiary or beneficiaries refers to 

the segment of the Native Hawaiian 

representatives of home land homestead 

population that is eligible to live on the 

associations, officials and staff of DHHL, 

home lands, specified by HHCA to be 

and staff at organizations with direct 

those with at least 50 percent Native 

experience working with the state’s Native 

Hawaiian blood quantum. 

Hawaiian population.

2  The technical U.S. census term is Native Hawaiian in combination.

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Executive Summary

Exhibit ES.1. Definitions of Native Hawaiian

In this report, the term  Native Hawaiian is used to refer to all Native Hawaiians, regardless of blood quantum.

Native Hawaiian: a descendant of the aboriginal people who, prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of Hawaii. This definition flows directly from multiple Acts of Congress. See, for example, 12 U.S.C. 1715z–13b(6); 25 

U.S.C. 4221(9); 42 U.S.C. 254s(c); 42 U.S.C. 11711(3).

The term  HHCA beneficiary is used to refer to people with a Native Hawaiian blood quantum of 50 percent or more. HHCA is the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act, and HHCA beneficiary includes both HHCA lessees and those who are on the HHCA beneficiary waiting list. 

An HHCA beneficiary is defined in P.L. 104-42 as having "the same meaning as is given the term Native Hawaiian under section 201(7) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act." Section 201 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act states "Native Hawaiian means any descendant of not less than one-half part of the blood of the races inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands previous to 1778." A lower case “n” (“native Hawaiian) is sometimes used refer to the subset of all Native Hawaiians who meet the blood quantum requirements set out in the HHCA. In this report, the term  HHCA beneficiary is used rather than native Hawaiian.

HHCA lessee means one of the following

(1) An HHCA beneficiary who has been awarded a lease under Section 207(a) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.a

(2) A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 percent or more) to whom land has been transferred under Section 208 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.

(3) A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 percent or more) successor lessee under Section 209 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.

Congress uses two approaches to defining the Native Hawaiian community—the definition that is used in the HHCA, and a broader definition that includes any U.S. citizen who descends from the aboriginal people who, prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of Hawaii (U.S. Department of the Interior, 2015). 

In this report, since data sources used in this study provide data separately for Native Hawaiians and all other residents of Hawaii, the term resident of Hawaii refers to those who live in the state of Hawaii but who do not identify as Native Hawaiian. In general parlance, people who live in Hawaii or who come from Hawaii are not all referred to as  Hawaiians. The term  Hawaiian is used to describe members of the ethnic group indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands.  Hawaii resident or  islander describes anyone who lives in the state. (Section 3, Definitions, Senate Bill No. 147, March 2005, sponsored by Senator Daniel Akaka).

a  See Sections 207(a) and 208(5) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act and 43 CFR Part 47.10  Federal Register 80 (91).

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Executive Summary

2. A household survey administered 

•  All this growth, however, was among the 

in person to a sample of 516 HHCA 

multiracial Native Hawaiian population; 

beneficiary households provided new 

the population that identified as Native 

information on households eligible for 

Hawaiian alone did not grow at all during 

housing on the Hawaiian home lands but 

the decade, but the Native Hawaiian 

currently awaiting a lease assignment. 

multiracial population grew 31 percent. 

Data collection took place from August 

As a result of this uneven growth, an 

2014 to April 2015.

increasing share of the Native Hawaiian 

population is multiracial: nearly three 

° A representative sample was drawn from 

in four people who identified as Native 

a list of applicants on the waiting list for 

Hawaiian in 2010 also identified as another 

homestead leases on the Hawaiian home 

race.

lands and who opted in, via postcard, to 

participate in the survey. Trained Native 

•  Native Hawaiians living in Hawaii move 

Hawaiian interviewers conducted the 

less often than other residents of Hawaii. 

interviews at respondents’ residences 

They are more likely to have lived in the 

so they could document indicators 

same housing unit as in the previous year 

of quality and adequacy of the 

(86 percent of Native Hawaiians compared 

respondents’ housing. Overall, 82.2 

with 84 percent for residents of Hawaii), 

percent of households who opted into 

and, of those who live in a different place, 

the study completed the survey.

Native Hawaiians are more likely to live 

in the same county as their previous 

Key Findings

residence (84 percent of Native Hawaiians 

This report presents findings about 

compared with 56 percent of residents of 

population growth and distribution; 

Hawaii).

demographic, social, and economic 

Demographic, Social, and Economic 

conditions; and housing conditions and 

Conditions 

needs. Findings are presented specifically for 

Native Hawaiians residing on the Hawaiian 

This report compares the demographic, 

Home Lands and HHCA beneficiaries on the 

social, and economic conditions of Native 

Home Lands waiting list.

Hawaiians residing in Hawaii and other 

residents of Hawaii at the state and county 

Population Growth and Distribution 

levels from 2000 to 2010. The analysis 

Changes in the Native Hawaiian population 

includes age structure, household size and 

and its distribution across the state have 

type, educational attainment, employment 

implications for the quantity, size, features, 

levels, income, and poverty. Given the 

and cost of housing needed.

significance of the recent national recession 

(hereafter called the Great Recession) to 

•  During the 2000-to-2010 decade, the 

the economy during this decade, the report 

Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii 

also examines employment levels, income, 

grew at nearly twice the rate of the state’s 

and poverty to better understand the Great 

population overall: the Native Hawaiian 

Recession’s impact on Native Hawaiians 

population grew at a rate of 21 percent 

residing in Hawaii.3 

compared with only a 12-percent rate for 

the overall population of Hawaii.

3  The Great Recession occurred from December 2007 through June 2009.

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Executive Summary

The Native Hawaiian population has a 

and they also have higher unemployment 

larger share of children (under age 18) 

rates than residents of Hawaii. 

and a smaller share of seniors (age 65 and 

older) than does the residents of Hawaii 

•  Although improvements were made 

population. In 2010, 39 percent of Native 

during the 2000-to-2010 decade, Native 

Hawaiians were under age 20 compared 

Hawaiians living in Hawaii continue to 

with 21 percent of residents of Hawaii. Only 

be more economically disadvantaged: 

7 percent of Native Hawaiians were age 

they have lower incomes, higher rates of 

65 and older compared with 16 percent of 

assistance receipt, and higher poverty 

residents of Hawaii.

rates than do other residents of Hawaii. 

•  Native Hawaiian households tend to 

•  Native Hawaiians living in Hawaii were 

be larger. In 2010, the average size of a 

disproportionately hurt by the Great 

Native Hawaiian household was 4.1 people 

Recession when compared with other 

compared with 2.7 people for residents of 

residents of Hawaii. From 2008 to 2011, 

Hawaii households.

those Native Hawaiians experienced a 

larger drop in their employment rate 

•  Native Hawaiian households are more 

and larger increases in their rates of 

likely to be families with children than are 

unemployment, poverty, and means-

residents of Hawaii households. 

tested benefit receipt than did other 

residents of Hawaii. 

•  In 2010, 15 percent of Native Hawaiian 

households were single-parent households, 

Housing Conditions and Needs

more than twice the 6-percent rate for 

residents of Hawaii households. 

Using U.S. Census Bureau data sources and 

information gleaned from key informant 

•  The Native Hawaiian population has a 

interviews, this report presents data on the 

lower level of educational attainment than 

housing stock and housing conditions and 

does the residents of Hawaii population. 

needs in Hawaii. It describes the housing 

A larger share of the Native Hawaiian 

market in Hawaii in comparison with the 

population has attained no higher than a 

United States as a whole and compares 

high school diploma or general educational 

housing information for Native Hawaiians 

development, or GED, certificate (44 

and other residents of Hawaii residing within 

percent) than has the residents of Hawaii 

the state of Hawaii (that is, both on and off 

population (26 percent), and a smaller 

the Hawaiian home lands), including selected 

share of the Native Hawaiian population 

indicators of housing problems and needs 

(15 percent) has a bachelor’s or graduate 

(that is, overcrowding, affordability, and 

degree than does the residents of Hawaii 

kitchen and plumbing facilities problems).

population (32 percent).

•  Housing stock growth in Hawaii was 

•  Native Hawaiians participate in the civilian 

similar to the rate of growth in the United 

labor force (that is, they are either working 

States overall (13 percent in Hawaii and 

or looking for work in civilian jobs) at higher 

14 percent in the United States). Within 

rates than do residents of Hawaii, who have 

the state, Honolulu County saw the least 

higher rates of military participation, given 

new development, reflecting the state’s 

the U.S. Department of Defense’s strong 

priorities to promote growth outside 

presence in the state. Native Hawaiians 

Honolulu County.

work in lower-wage service industry jobs, 

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Executive Summary

•  Vacation homes (that is, units for 

•  Native Hawaiian households face 

seasonal, recreational, or occasional use) 

higher rates of facilities problems than 

dominate housing vacancies in Hawaii: 47 

do residents of Hawaii households. For 

percent of vacant units in the state fall 

example, during the 2006-to-2010 period, 

into this category. Vacancy rates among 

1.1 percent of Native Hawaiian households 

units available for permanent residences 

lacked complete plumbing facilities 

in Hawaii are similar to the United States 

compared with 0.7 percent of residents of 

overall for homeowner units (both about 

Hawaii households. 

2 percent) and lower for rental units 

(8 percent in Hawaii compared with 9 

•  Native Hawaiian households also 

percent in the United States), suggesting 

experience higher rates of overcrowding (15 

a tighter housing market. 

percent) compared with residents of Hawaii 

households (8 percent). 

•  Native Hawaiian households live in older 

housing at slightly higher rates and 

•  Affordability challenges are more acute in 

are more likely to live in single-family 

Hawaii than in the United States overall, 

detached homes than are residents of 

with both the Native Hawaiian and 

Hawaii households. During the 2006-

residents of Hawaii cost burden rates (40 

to-2010 period, 21 percent of Native 

and 42 percent, respectively) surpassing 

Hawaiian households lived in units built 

the national rate of 36 percent. Despite the 

before 1960 compared with 19 percent of 

slightly lower rate among Native Hawaiians, 

residents of Hawaii households. Further, 

key informants from multiple organizations 

71 percent of Native Hawaiian households 

noted the prevalence of affordability 

lived in single-family detached homes 

problems among Native Hawaiians 

compared with 63 percent of residents 

and indicated that they cope with this 

of Hawaii households. 

challenge through extended-family living 

or overcrowding, taking on additional jobs, 

•  Despite Native Hawaiians’ preference for 

or moving to less expensive areas farther 

homeownership over renting, the Native 

from employment. 

Hawaiian homeownership rate lags 

behind that of residents of Hawaii. During 

•  Homelessness among Native Hawaiians is 

the 2006-to-2010 period, 55 percent 

prevalent. Although not typically chronically 

of Native Hawaiian households were 

homeless, they are overrepresented in 

homeowners compared with 58 percent 

Hawaii’s homeless population. Homeless 

of residents of Hawaii households. 

Native Hawaiians often have jobs but 

cannot afford housing, so they double up 

•  When Native Hawaiians do own homes, 

or live in tents, shelters, cars, or garages.

those homes tend to be valued at 

less than homes owned by residents 

Native Hawaiians Residing on 

of Hawaii. During the 2006-to-2010 

Hawaiian Home Lands and on the 

period, the median home value for 

Home Lands Waiting List

Native Hawaiians ($463,800) was nearly 

$75,000 less than the state median. 

Findings specific to Native Hawaiians 

This disparity persisted in the four 

residing on the Hawaiian home lands and 

counties examined.

those on the waiting list for a lot on the 

Hawaiian home lands include the following.4

4  Note that these two groups are not mutually exclusive, because some individuals who reside on the Hawaiian home lands are also HHCA beneficiary applicants on the waiting list. 

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Executive Summary

•  Households on the 20 sampled Hawaiian 

households, and 8 percent of residents 

home lands were more demographically 

of Hawaii households. 

similar to HHCA beneficiary households 

on the waiting list than to Native Hawaiian 

° About 10 percent of HHCA beneficiary 

and residents of Hawaii households. For 

households on the waiting list lack 

example, about 25 percent of households 

complete plumbing compared with 1 

on the sampled Hawaiian home lands and 

percent for all other groups. 

on the waiting list are married couples 

° Nearly one-half (46 percent) of HHCA 

with children, and about 9 percent are 

beneficiary households on the waiting 

single-parent households. Further, about 

list experience cost burden compared 

two in five households for both groups 

with 40 percent of Native Hawaiian 

have five or more members. 

households, 42 percent of resident 

•  HHCA beneficiary households on the 

of Hawaii households, and only 21 

waiting list are more economically 

percent of households on the sampled 

disadvantaged than are Native Hawaiian 

Hawaiian home lands. The much lower 

households overall, residents of Hawaii 

rate of cost burden among home lands 

households, and Native Hawaiian 

households is due, at least in part, to the 

households living on the home lands. 

financial benefits of home lands leases, 

which reduce monthly housing costs, 

° HHCA beneficiary households on 

including minimal lease payments for 

the waiting list have the lowest 

the land and a 7-year exemption from 

median income of all four groups 

real estate property tax.

by a substantial margin: $48,000 

compared with more than $60,000 for 

Housing Policies and Programs

all other groups.

This study considered Hawaiian home 

° HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list 

lands policies and other housing assistance 

also receive public cash assistance 

programs available to members of the 

at more than twice the rate of the 

Native Hawaiian community, homeownership 

other groups: about 20 percent of 

and mortgage access, and NAHASDA 

households on the waiting list received 

funding and activities. 

public cash assistance compared with 

•  DHHL has extended home land lease 

about 7 percent of Native Hawaiians 

offers to thousands of HHCA beneficiaries 

and those living on the home lands 

on the waiting list for a residential lot 

and 3 percent for residents of Hawaii.

during the past 20 years, but many 

•  HHCA beneficiary households on the 

HHCA beneficiary lease applicants do 

waiting list face more significant housing 

not assume a lease when it is offered. 

challenges across all dimensions than do 

DHHL staff and other informants noted 

the other groups.

that inability to secure the necessary loan 

is a significant barrier to lease takeup. 

° Nearly 40 percent of HHCA 

DHHL staff also reported that applicants 

beneficiary households on the waiting 

turn down leases because they are not 

list were overcrowded compared 

interested in the lot available, are waiting 

with only 19 percent of households 

for property in a specific area, consider 

on sampled Hawaiian home lands, 15 

themselves too old to assume a mortgage, 

percent of the state’s Native Hawaiian 

or are living on the mainland and not 

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Executive Summary

ready to return to Hawaii. The survey of 

    financial literacy; and grants for model 

HHCA beneficiary households on the 

activities, including safety enhancements, 

waiting list confirmed these impressions. 

organizational support, community 

About 55 percent of households had 

policing, and model activities that 

received a lease offer from DHHL, and the 

incorporate educational, cultural, and 

most common reasons for not accepting 

recreational activities for affordable-

it were not liking the location, thinking 

housing residents. 

they would not qualify for the loan, and 

not being able to relocate at that time. 

•  Like tribal reservation lands on the 

continental United States, Hawaiian 

•  In previous years, DHHL prioritized 

home lands are held in trust and the 

turnkey developments, which provide 

inalienability of the trust lands constrains 

lessees with built homes rather than 

building or purchasing homes on Hawaiian 

owner-build plots where lessees build 

home lands.5 Private lenders are unwilling 

their own houses. Turnkey leases cost 

to lend to a home lands homebuyer 

more, which some stakeholders believe 

because no mechanism would be in place 

has made it harder for low- and moderate-

to foreclose in the event of a borrower 

income HHCA beneficiaries to have a 

default. Various federal programs have 

lease on the Hawaiian home lands. DHHL 

been designed to address this issue. 

is currently piloting rental and rent with 

option to purchase models to better meet 

•  One challenge related to NAHASDA 

the needs of some lower-income HHCA 

funding is that, because NHHBG is a federal 

beneficiaries. DHHL more recently has 

funding stream, DHHL must pay prevailing 

taken a renewed look at providing more 

wages as determined by the Davis-

owner-build plots and financing options 

Bacon Act wage requirements. Although 

to assist lower-income HHCA beneficiaries 

American Indian tribes and Alaska Native 

with building their own homes.

villages can apply their own prevailing 

wage rates in lieu of the federal ones, DHHL 

•  Despite the affordability challenge, 

does not have this authority. Key informants 

Native Hawaiians tend to prefer owning a 

noted that the prevailing wage rates are 

single-family home. About 60 percent of 

often higher than market or labor union 

households on the waiting list indicated an 

wage rates, increasing the cost of labor. 

improved lot with a new house as their first 

choice, and 46 percent listed an improved 

Conclusions

lot with an existing house as their second 

Overall, the Native Hawaiian population 

choice. Further, only one-half of HHCA 

faces greater levels of disadvantage than 

beneficiary households on the waiting list 

the residents of Hawaii population, and 

would be willing to accept a townhouse or 

HHCA beneficiary households on the waiting 

multiplex unit rather than a single-family 

list for homestead leases on the Hawaiian 

unit in order to get a home more quickly. 

home lands face even larger challenges. By 

•  DHHL staff highlighted a number of ways 

contrast, Native Hawaiians currently living 

they use NHHBG funds, including capital 

on the Hawaiian home lands have higher 

improvement; mortgage and home-repair 

incomes and face housing affordability 

loan financing; loss mitigation;

issues less often. 

5  From a legal perspective, the Hawaiian home lands are public lands held in trust by the State of Hawaii for the benefit of Native Hawaiians as defined in the HHCA. Thus, HHCA beneficiaries who become residents on one of the Hawaiian home lands are not landowners, but rather “lessees.”

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Executive Summary

Evidence suggests the need for increased 

assistance programs serving all residents of 

homeownership supports among low-

Hawaii, such as the Housing Choice Voucher 

income HHCA beneficiary households on 

program, which has closed waiting lists 

the waiting list. Many renters (63 percent) on 

throughout the state. 

the HHCA beneficiary waiting list who would 

prefer to own a home are unable to do so 

Native Hawaiians living on the Hawaiian 

because they cannot afford a downpayment 

home lands are better off financially 

or save enough for a house. Although the 

than other Native Hawaiians, while at the 

survey sample was drawn from all HHCA 

same time HHCA beneficiary applicants 

beneficiary applicants on the waiting list 

on the waiting list struggle the most with 

and was not limited to NAHASDA-eligible 

affordability problems. This difference 

HHCA beneficiaries (those at less than 

could be due in part to the ability of 

80 percent of the Area Median Income), 

financially better off HHCA beneficiaries 

their income data suggest that about one-

to assume leases more often because 

half of this population would qualify for 

they are able to obtain the necessary 

NAHASDA assistance. This finding suggests 

housing loan and the inability of those 

the need for NAHASDA funds to support 

who are worse off to obtain the housing 

downpayment assistance, credit counseling, 

loan, requiring them to stay on the waiting 

and homebuyer education and also the 

list. The evidence suggests the benefits 

development of larger homes suited to 

of home lands housing, however, and 

the group’s larger typical household size. 

supports continuous and increased funding 

A complementary approach might be 

for infrastructure, housing development, 

to support affordable rental options as a 

and housing assistance for low-income 

stepping stone to homeownership.

HHCA beneficiaries. Data show that all 

Native Hawaiian households, but especially 

The NHHBG program is limited to serving 

those on the waiting list for a home lands 

income-eligible HHCA beneficiaries. Other 

lease, face significant housing challenges, 

members of the Native Hawaiian community 

suggesting a need to consider alternative 

who are ineligible for homestead leases 

ways to assist low-income households 

must seek assistance through housing 

through the NHHBG and other programs.

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Section 1. Introduction

Section 1. Introduction

community since the overthrow of the 

Kingdom of Hawaii more than a century 

ago, the federal government does 

not maintain a formal government-to-

This report is part of the Assessment of 

government relationship with the Native 

American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native 

Hawaiian community as an organized, 

Hawaiian Housing Needs sponsored by the 

sovereign entity. The State of Hawaii’s 

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban 

Department of Hawaiian Home Lands 

Development (HUD). The overarching 

(DHHL) manages NHHBG funds. DHHL also 

purpose of the assessment is to document 

handles the day-to-day management of the 

the housing needs and conditions of 

Hawaiian Home Lands program established 

American Indians, Alaska Natives, and 

in 1921 by the Hawaiian Homes Commission 

Native Hawaiians. 

Act (HHCA). The public land trust of more 

This report examines patterns in the social, 

than 200,000 acres was established for 

economic, and housing characteristics and 

homesteading by members of the Native 

conditions of Native Hawaiians based on 

Hawaiian community who are not less than 

data produced by the U.S. Census Bureau 

one-half part of the blood of the people 

and on new data collection. The Urban 

inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands before 1778 

Institute conducted a similar assessment 

in order to support the self-sufficiency and 

of Native Hawaiian housing problems and 

well-being of the Native Hawaiian people.6 

needs using 1990 census data (Mikelsons et 

The blood quantum requirement of these 

al., 1995). That report identified substantial 

persons, referred to in this report as  HHCA 

disparities between Native Hawaiians and 

beneficiaries, reflects ties to the Native 

non-Native Hawaiians in education, income, 

Hawaiian political community.7

and unemployment. In addition, it found that 

These trust lands are leased to HHCA 

Native Hawaiians experienced substantial 

beneficiaries for residential, agricultural, 

housing problems, including overcrowding 

and pastoral purposes in homestead 

and cost burden. Given these levels of need 

communities. From a legal perspective, 

and disparity, the report suggested that 

the Hawaiian home lands are public lands 

existing housing and development programs 

held in trust by the State of Hawaii for the 

were not meeting the housing needs of 

benefit of Native Hawaiians, as defined 

Native Hawaiians. 

in HHCA. Thus, HHCA beneficiaries who 

The Native Hawaiian population receives 

become residents on one of the Hawaiian 

federal housing funds through the Native 

home lands are not landowners, but 

Hawaiian Housing Block Grant (NHHBG), 

rather “lessees.” Demand for homestead 

which is authorized by an amendment to 

leases is consistently greater than the 

the Native American Housing Assistance 

supply. DHHL currently has 43,080 

and Self-Determination Act (NAHASDA). 

applications on its waiting list, of which 

Although Congress has repeatedly 

21,929 were applications for residential 

acknowledged its special political and 

homesteads (DHHL, 2014b). This situation 

trust relationship with the Native Hawaiian 

exists, in part, because many of the lands 

in the trust are remote and lack 

6  Section 201 of HHCA. The first contact of Western populations with the Hawaiian Islands occurred in 1778.

7   Proposed Amendments to the Organic Act of the Territory of Hawaii: Hearings on H.R. 7257 Before the House Comm. on the Territories, 66th Cong. 15, at 140 (1921). As Congress explained, Congress “does not extend services to Native Hawaiians because of their race, but because of their unique status as the indigenous peoples of a once sovereign nation as to whom the United States has established a trust relationship” 114 

Stat. 2968 (2000) (Hawaiian Homelands Homeownership Act).

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1

Section 1. Introduction

the infrastructure needed for homesteading 

•  What are the housing characteristics and 

purposes, such as roads, drainage, water, 

living conditions of the Native Hawaiian 

sewer, and electricity.

population in Hawaii? How do these 

trends compare with trends identified in 

Through this assessment of the housing 

Mikelsons et al. (1995)?

needs of the Native Hawaiian population, 

this report aims to provide information that 

•  What differences exist between the 

can inform policy in ways that support the 

housing characteristics and living 

federal government and other stakeholders 

conditions of the Native Hawaiian 

in effectively using resources to improve 

population residing on the Hawaiian home 

the housing conditions of the Native 

lands and the Native Hawaiian population 

Hawaiian community. 

living in the rest of the state of Hawaii?

This Report and the Overall Study 

•  What are the housing conditions and 

needs of HHCA beneficiaries on the 

Because of differences in the history and 

waiting list for leases in the Hawaiian 

characteristics of the Native Hawaiian 

home lands, and how do they 

population and land trust administration 

compare with those of Hawaiian home 

compared with those of the American 

lands residents?

Indian and Alaska Native populations, 

the assessment of the housing needs of 

The study approach combined existing 

Native Hawaiians was conducted as a 

data and new data collection and included 

distinct project component of the national 

both quantitative and qualitative methods. 

Assessment of American Indian, Alaska 

The report includes descriptions of the 

Native, and Native Hawaiian Housing Needs. 

geography and history of Hawaii that 

provide context for unique landownership 

This report presents an overview of 

and housing concepts and for development 

characteristics of Native Hawaiians living 

challenges in Hawaii. The following data 

in the state of Hawaii and addresses the 

sources are used in this study.

following research questions.

•  Data products from the U.S. Census. The 

•  What has been the extent of population 

decennial censuses of 2000 and 2010 

growth for Native Hawaiians, and what 

and the 2006–2010 American Community 

are the trends between the 2000 and 

Survey (ACS) 5-year estimates form the 

2010 censuses?

basis for analysis of trends in population, 

•  What are the trends in the distribution of 

socioeconomic conditions, and housing 

the Native Hawaiian population over time?

in Hawaii and for residents of sampled 

Hawaiian home lands.8 The research team 

•  What are the trends in the social and 

also used the 2008 and 2011 1-year ACS 

economic conditions of the Native 

estimates to evaluate the impact of the 

Hawaiian population between the 2000 

Great Recession on Native Hawaiians. 

and 2010 censuses? How do these trends 

compare with trends identified in the 

•  DHHL surveys of its lessees. The research 

earlier Urban Institute study conducted 

team used the most recent surveys, which 

for HUD (Mikelsons et al., 1995)?

were completed in 2008 and 2014.

8  Some analysis of the characteristics of the Native Hawaiian population residing in the continental United States is included in this report, but most of the study’s data collection and analyses focus on the Native Hawaiian population in the state of Hawaii.

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Section 1. Introduction

•  Discussions with stakeholders in 

° Trained Native Hawaian interviewers 

Hawaii. Semistructured discussions 

conducted interviews. The overall unweighted 

conducted in July 2014 provide qualitative 

response rate was 82.2 percent.9 

information about the housing market, 

housing stock, and housing challenges 

Additional detail about data sources 

for Native Hawaiians in general and 

and methods is included in the technical 

residents in the Hawaiian home lands in 

appendixes.

particular. Discussions were held with 

The Structure of This Report 

leadership and members of homestead 

associations, officials and staff of DHHL, 

The remaining sections of the report consist 

and stakeholders at organizations that 

of sections 2 through 7 and technical 

work with the state’s Native Hawaiian 

appendixes. The report moves from the 

population. This last group included 

broader context of the state of Hawaii to 

the State of Hawaii Office of Hawaiian 

the Hawaiian home lands, followed by new 

Affairs, housing assistance providers, 

information about HHCA beneficiaries on the 

financial institutions, advocacy groups, 

waiting list for a lot on the home lands. The 

and faith-based and other social service  report then describes housing policies and organizations.

programs in Hawaii, challenges that Native 

Hawaiians face, and policy implications and 

•  Household survey. An in-person survey 

conclusions.

of 516 HHCA beneficiary households 

provided new information on HHCA 

Section 2—Population Growth and 

beneficiary households who were eligible 

Distribution 

for housing on the Hawaiian home lands 

but were currently awaiting assignment 

Section 2 presents information on the 

of a lease. Data collection took place from 

changing size of the Native Hawaiian 

August 2014 through April 2015.

population in the United States, in the 

state of Hawaii, and in counties within the 

° A representative sample was drawn 

state. These trends provide context for 

from a list of applicants on the waiting 

understanding the housing needs of Native 

list and who opted in, via postcard, to 

Hawaiians. The analysis was based primarily 

participate in the survey (see exhibit 

on data from the 2000 and 2010 decennial 

ES.1 for the definition of an HHCA 

censuses and the 2006–2010 ACS.

beneficiary). Obtaining a random sample 

of HHCA beneficiaries from the general 

Section 3—Demographic, Social, and 

population of the state would have been 

Economic Conditions 

beyond the funding limits of the study. 

Section 3 describes the demographic, social, 

After reviewing several administrative 

and economic conditions of Native Hawaiians 

databases, the study team determined 

in Hawaii, including age structure, household 

that the waiting list database provided 

size and type, educational attainment, 

the best pool from which to draw a 

employment levels, income, and poverty. 

random sample of individuals of Native 

Native Hawaiians and non-Native Hawaiians 

Hawaiian heritage. 

are compared across these domains at the 

state and county levels from 

9  Some postcard opt-ins to the survey that were received late in the field period were sampled out because the research team did not need to include them to reach the sample targets. The unweighted response rate excludes those cases.

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Section 1. Introduction

2000 to 2010. Given the significance of the 

Section 6—Housing Policies and Programs 

Great Recession to the national economy 

during this decade, this section also 

Section 6 discusses Hawaiian home lands 

examines selected variables (employment 

policies and other housing assistance 

levels, income, and poverty) to better 

programs available to the Native Hawaiian 

understand the Great Recession’s impact on 

community and to other low-income 

Native Hawaiians.

residents of Hawaii. This section then 

considers homeownership and access to 

Section 4—Housing Conditions and Needs 

mortgages. The research team’s review of 

policy documents and research reports 

Using U.S. Census Bureau data sources and 

is further informed by discussions with 

information gleaned from interviews with 

stakeholder organizations, ongoing 

stakeholders in Hawaii, section 4 presents 

discussions with DHHL, and the survey of 

data on the housing stock and housing 

households on the waiting list. 

conditions and needs in Hawaii. The 

section begins by describing the housing 

Section 7—Conclusions 

market, including the types, age, size, and 

values of housing in Hawaii, and compares 

The report concludes with an overall 

these data with data for the United States 

assessment of the challenges of the Native 

as a whole. It also compares housing 

Hawaiian population, residents currently 

information for Native Hawaiians and non-

living on the Hawaiian home lands, and 

Native Hawaiians residing within Hawaii. 

HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for 

This section presents selected indicators 

homestead leases on the Hawaiian home 

of housing problems and needs, including 

lands. The research team finds that the 

overcrowding, affordability, and kitchen 

data suggest the benefits of receiving a 

and plumbing facilities problems. The data 

homestead lease and substantiate the need 

presented for Native Hawaiians in this 

for continued housing assistance for Native 

section include all respondents in Hawaii 

Hawaiians. The research also estimates the 

who self-identified as Native Hawaiian in 

proportion of Native Hawaiians who could 

the census, including Native Hawaiians 

potentially be served by NAHASDA. 

residing on the Hawaiian home lands. 

Section 5—Circumstances of Native 

Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home 

Lands and on the Home Lands Waiting List 

Sections 2 through 4 of this report describe 

population growth and distribution, social 

and economic conditions and trends, and 

housing conditions and needs for all of 

Hawaii by using census data to compare 

Native Hawaiians residing in the state 

with other residents of Hawaii. Section 5 

addresses the same topics, focusing on two 

groups of Native Hawaiians: those residing 

on the Hawaiian home lands and those 

HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for a 

lot on the Hawaiian home lands. 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

4

Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Section 2. Population 

however, Native Hawaiians made up a 

larger share of the population there in 

Growth and Distribution

2010 than in 2000.

•  Native Hawaiians residing in Hawaii move 

less often than other residents of Hawaii. 

This section presents information on the 

They were more likely to have lived in the 

changing size of the Native Hawaiian 

same housing unit in the previous year, 

population in the United States, in the 

and those who moved were more likely to 

state of Hawaii, and in the counties within 

remain in the same county.

the state. These trends provide context 

for understanding the housing needs of 

Historical Perspective

Native Hawaiians. Changes in the Native 

Native Hawaiians experienced drastic 

Hawaiian population and its distribution 

population losses in the century after first 

across the state have implications for the 

contact with non-Hawaiians due to the 

quantity, size, features, and cost of housing 

introduction of diseases, weapons, and 

needed. The analysis was based primarily 

alcohol. The size of Hawaii’s indigenous 

on data from the 2000 and 2010 decennial 

population was estimated at 200,000 to 

censuses and the 2006–2010 American 

400,000 around 1778. A census taken in 

Community Survey.

the 1830s enumerated a Native Hawaiian 

Key findings from this section include—

population of only 130,000, and, in 1900, the 

Native Hawaiian population was less than 

•  During the 2000-to-2010 decade, the 

40,000 (Mikelsons et al., 1995).

Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii 

grew at twice the rate of the state’s 

The depopulation of Hawaii was sharply 

population overall.

reversed early in the 20th century, however, 

with large-scale immigration to the state. 

•  All this growth, however, was among the 

Increasing demand for plantation workers 

multiracial Native Hawaiian population. 

stimulated immigration initially from 

The population that identified as Native 

China and Portugal and, later, from Japan 

Hawaiian alone did not grow at all during 

and the Philippines. Immigration from 

the decade, but the Native Hawaiian 

the U.S. mainland as a result of Hawaii’s 

multiracial population grew 31 percent.

annexation and conversion to statehood 

also contributed importantly to growth 

•  As a result of this uneven growth, an 

(Mikelsons et al., 1995). By 2000, Hawaii’s 

increasing share of the Native Hawaiian 

population had grown to about 1.2 million 

population is multiracial. Nearly three 

overall, nearly eight times what it had been 

in four people who identified as Native 

in 1900 (about 150,000 residents; see 

Hawaiian in 2010 also identified as 

appendix A, exhibit A3.1).

another race. 

Although no fully reliable data are available, 

•  Native Hawaiians were more likely to live 

it is likely that Native Hawaiians accounted 

outside Honolulu County than were other 

for nearly all the state’s people in 1900, 

residents of Hawaii. Because the Native 

but their share dropped significantly after 

Hawaiian population grew by a much 

that. In 1990, the U.S. Census reported 

larger percentage than did the residents 

that Native Hawaiians accounted for only 

of Hawaii population in Honolulu County, 

13 percent of the total state population; 

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Asians accounted for 49 percent, Whites 

290,000 (55 percent) lived in Hawaii and 

for 33 percent, and Blacks for 2.5 percent 

237,000 (45 percent) lived on the mainland. 

(Mikelsons et al., 1995).

The population living on the mainland has a 

slightly higher share of those who identify as 

Defining Native Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian alone (32 percent) than the 

The U.S. decennial census provides reliable, 

population in Hawaii (28 percent). 

consistently defined information about the 

Further, growth rates among the Native 

population in the country. Since the census’s 

Hawaiian population have been driven 

inception, however, the U.S. Census Bureau 

by growth among the Native Hawaiian 

has changed how it asks respondents about 

multiracial population. Overall, that group 

race and ethnicity, which limits the ability 

grew 42 percent during the decade 

to make comparisons about the Native 

compared with a growth rate of 10 percent 

Hawaiian population over time.10A significant 

for the total U.S. population. Growth was 

change occurred in 2000, when the U.S. 

strong inside and outside Hawaii: the 

Census Bureau started allowing respondents 

mainland population grew 60 percent, and 

to identify themselves as belonging to more 

the Native Hawaiian multiracial population 

than one race, and, in 2010, the Census 

in Hawaii grew 31 percent. By contrast, the 

Bureau adopted a consistent approach. 

Native Hawaiian-alone population grew 

Because this report primarily focuses on 

much more slowly during the decade, and 

comparing trends from 2000 to 2010, 

all the growth happened outside Hawaii. 

which use consistent racial definitions, 

The Native Hawaiian-alone population 

this change does not present a significant 

on the mainland grew 25 percent, but 

problem for this report. Some comparisons 

the population in Hawaii experienced no 

are made with 1990 decennial census data 

growth, remaining at about 80,000 during 

from Mikelsons et al. (1995), and those 

the decade. A result of these trends is that 

comparisons should be interpreted with 

an increasing share of the Native Hawaiian 

caution. This report uses the population 

population is multiracial, with 72 percent 

definitions shown in exhibit 2.1, which is also 

(nearly three in four) of those who identify 

included in the executive summary. 

as Native Hawaiian also identifying with 

The Total Native Hawaiian 

another race in 2010.

Population

Hawaii’s Geography

By 2010, the Native Hawaiian population 

The state of Hawaii is part of the Hawaiian 

was roughly evenly split between those 

archipelago, which spans 1,500 square 

living in Hawaii and those residing on 

miles and includes 132 islands. The state 

the U.S. mainland (exhibit 2.2). Because 

itself includes eight major islands in the 

of differing growth rates, the population 

southeastern part of the archipelago: Hawaii, 

became increasingly dominated by the 

Kahoolawe, Kauai, Lanai, Maui, Molokai, 

Native Hawaiian multiracial population. In 

Niihau, and Oahu (see exhibit 2.3). All are 

2010, 527,000 people identified as Native 

inhabited, except for Kahoolawe. The island 

Hawaiian in the United States, and, of those, 

of Hawaii is the largest, containing 62.7 

10  Early census data, such as the 1900 U.S. Census of the Hawaiian Islands, listed Hawaiian as an option. Hawaii became a state in 1959, and, in 1960, “Hawaiian” and “Part Hawaiian” were added as racial categories for state of Hawaii residents only. In 1970, these two categories were collapsed into “Hawaiian” and this single category was added as an option for every state except Alaska (Hixson, Hepler, and Kim, 2010). 

This change resulted in a substantial reduction in the population that identified as Hawaiian in the state between 1960 and 1970, presum-ably because many Hawaiians chose another racial category in 1970 because “Part Hawaiian” was no longer an option (Jaworowski, 1998).

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Exhibit 2.1. Definitions of Native Hawaiian

In this report, the term  Native Hawaiian is used to refer to all Native Hawaiians, regardless of blood quantum.

Native Hawaiian: a descendant of the aboriginal people who, prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of Hawaii. This definition flows directly from multiple Acts of Congress. See, for example, 12 U.S.C. 1715z–13b(6); 25 U.S.C. 

4221(9); 42 U.S.C. 254s(c); 42 U.S.C. 11711(3).

The term  HHCA beneficiary is used to refer to people with a Native Hawaiian blood quantum of 50 percent or more. HHCA is the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act, and HHCA beneficiary includes both HHCA lessees and those who are on the HHCA beneficiary waiting list. 

An HHCA beneficiary is defined in P.L. 104-42 as having "the same meaning as is given the term Native Hawaiian under section 201(7) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act." Section 201 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act states "Native Hawaiian means any descendant of not less than one-half part of the blood of the races inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands previous to 1778." A lower case “n” (“native Hawaiian) is sometimes used refer to the subset of all Native Hawaiians who meet the blood quantum requirements set out in the HHCA. In this report, the term  HHCA beneficiary is used rather than native Hawaiian.

HHCA lessee means one of the following

(1) An HHCA beneficiary who has been awarded a lease under Section 207(a) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.

(2) A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 percent or more) to whom land has been transferred under Section 208 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.

(3) A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 percent or more) successor lessee under Section 209 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.a

Congress uses two approaches to defining the Native Hawaiian community—the definition that is used in the HHCA, and a broader definition that includes any U.S. citizen who descends from the aboriginal people who, prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of Hawaii (U.S. Department of the Interior, 2015). 

In this report, since data sources used in this study provide data separately for Native Hawaiians and all other residents of Hawaii, the term resident of Hawaii refers to those who live in the state of Hawaii but who do not identify as Native Hawaiian. In general parlance, people who live in Hawaii or who come from Hawaii are not all referred to as  Hawaiians. The term  Hawaiian is used to describe members of the ethnic group indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands.  Hawaii resident or  islander describes anyone who lives in the state. (Section 3, Definitions, Senate Bill No. 147, March 2005, sponsored by Senator Daniel Akaka).

a See Sections 207(a) and 208(5) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act and 43 CFR Part 47.10  Federal Register 80 (91). 

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Exhibit 2.2. Total Native Hawaiian Population, 2000 to 2010

Total Population

Native Hawaiian Population

Total

Alone

Multiracial 

Population, 2010 (000)

U.S. total

308,746

527

156

371

Hawai

1,360

290

80

210

Mainland United States

307,385

237

76

161

Percent of Total Population, 2010 

U.S. total

100

100

100

100

Hawai

0* 

55

51

57

Mainland United States

100

45

49

43

Percent Change in Population, 2000–2010

U.S. total

10

31

11

42

Hawai

12

21

0

31

Mainland United States

10

47

25

60

* Because less than 1 percent of the U.S. total population lives in Hawaii, the percentage rounds to zero.

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial censuses 2000 and 2010

percent of the state’s land area. Apart from 

developed. Although it has the smallest land 

the United States as a whole and the state of 

area, it has by far the highest population, 

Hawaii, the main geographic divisions used 

at nearly 1 million (70 percent of the entire 

in this report are counties and the Hawaiian 

state’s population), resulting in a population 

home lands. Hawaii has five counties: Hawaii, 

density that was 15 to 30 times that of the 

Honolulu, Kalawao, Kauai, and Maui. The 

other counties in 2010. The other three 

islands included in each county are shown 

counties were much less densely populated 

in the county/island chart. Because of data 

and had smaller population shares. In 

availability limitations, county-level analysis in 

2010, 14 percent of the state’s population 

this report does not include Kalawao County.11

lived in Hawaii County, 11 percent lived in 

Maui County, and 5 percent lived in Kauai 

The counties in Hawaii differ in their 

County. Although Hawaii County has more 

population size, land area, and population 

people than Maui and Kauai Counties, it is 

density (exhibit 2.4). The starkest contrasts 

also larger in size, resulting in a population 

are between Honolulu County, which 

density of about 46 people per square mile, 

contains the state’s only major city, 

which is about one-half the densities of Maui 

Honolulu, and the remainder of the state. 

and Kauai Counties.

Honolulu County is by far the most 

11  Kalawao County has a unique population in Hawaii. This county, with a population of 90 in 2010, is coterminous with the Kalaupapa National Historical Park, which includes the Kalaupapa settlement, whose residents after the 1860s were exiled individuals with leprosy (Hansen’s disease). After the quarantine policy was lifted in 1969, many of the residents chose to remain and are permitted to remain for the rest of their lives. This county is excluded from analyses for this study because the current population is extremely small, no new residents are allowed to move there, and the characteristics and needs of the current residents are unique in comparison with those of other residents in Hawaii.

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Exhibit 2.3. Counties in the State of Hawaii 

County

Islands

Hawaii 

Hawai

Honolulu 

Oahu, several smal er islands

Kalawao 

Kalaupapa peninsula on the island of Molokai

Kauai 

Kauai and Ni hau, nearby smaller islands 

Maui 

Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, and most of Molokai 

Exhibit 2.4. Land Area and Population Density, Hawaii and by County, 2010 

                                                                                     Population (thousands) Land Area, (sq. mi.)

Population Density (per sq. mi.)

Hawai

1,360

6,422

211.8

Counties

Hawai

185

4,028

45.9

Honolulu

953

600

1,586.70

Kauai

67

620

108.2

Maui

155

1,161

133.3

Source: U.S. Census Bureau: State and County QuickFacts. 

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Population Trends by County

policies to slow development in Honolulu 

County and redirect it to the other counties. 

Since the mid-20th century, the State of 

In response to these policies, population 

Hawaii has aimed to slow growth in Honolulu 

increases during the next three decades 

County and promote development in the 

in the three more rural counties exceeded 

rest of the state. As described by Mikelsons 

those in Honolulu. From 1970 to 1990, Maui 

et al. (1995), Honolulu County experienced 

County experienced the most dramatic 

the most overall population growth from 

growth, with the population more than 

1900 to 1990, growing to 14 times its 1900 

doubling, from 46,000 to 101,000. 

size, and the other counties’ populations 

grew much more slowly (from 2.5 to 3.6 

This trend continued during the 2000-

times their 1900 sizes by 1990). The pattern 

to-2010 decade, when the populations in 

of population growth across the counties 

Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai Counties grew at 

shifted after the 1970s, when the State of 

higher rates than the population in Honolulu 

Hawaii Land Use Commission implemented 

County (exhibit 2.5). During the decade, 

Exhibit 2.5. Population in Hawaii for the Total Population and the Native Hawaiian Population 2000-2010

Total Population

Native Hawaiian Population

Total

Alone

Multiracial

Population, 2010 (thousands)

Hawai

1,360

290

80

210

Hawaii County

185

55

16

39

Honolulu County

953

182

48

134

Kauai County

67

16

5

11

Maui County

155

37

11

25

Pct. of Total Population, 2010 

Hawai

100

21

6

15

Hawaii County

100

30

9

21

Honolulu County

100

19

5

14

Kauai County

100

24

8

16

Maui County

100

24

7

16

Pct. Change in Population, 

2000-2010

Hawai

12

21

0

31

Hawaii County

24

28

9

37

Honolulu County

9

19

-3

29

Kauai County

15

19

3

29

Maui County

21

23

0

37

Source: U.S. Census Bureau: State and County QuickFacts, 2010

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Honolulu County grew only 9 percent 

Mobility

compared with rates of 24 percent for 

Hawaii County, 21 percent for Maui, and 15 

Migration can be a major factor in 

percent for Kauai.

population change over time. Mikelsons et 

al. (1995) used the U.S. Census Bureau’s 

Compared with other residents of Hawaii, 

Public Use Microdata Sample files to 

Native Hawaiians are more likely to live 

examine net migration flows for the Native 

outside Honolulu County. In 2010, 63 percent 

Hawaiian population between the counties 

of Native Hawaiians lived in Honolulu County 

and the U.S. mainland between 1985 and 

compared with 70 percent of all residents. 

1990. They identified three important 

Although they were underrepresented in 

trends. First, the state lost about 1,800 

Honolulu County, Native Hawaiians were 

Native Hawaiians to the mainland, 1.5 

overrepresented in Hawaii County: 19 

percent of the population more than 5 years 

percent of Native Hawaiians lived there 

of age. Second, Honolulu County lost about 

compared with 14 percent of all residents. 

2,600 Native Hawaiians (3 percent of the 

Smaller shares of Native Hawaiians lived in 

county’s Native Hawaiian population) to the 

Maui (13 percent) and Kauai (6 percent).

other counties. Third, Hawaii County gained 

nearly 1,200 Native Hawaiians from the 

Like the state population overall, the Native 

other counties and the mainland.

Hawaiian population is growing most rapidly 

outside of Honolulu County. From 2000 

The research team was not able to conduct 

to 2010, the Native Hawaiian population 

a similar analysis for this study. Instead, the 

grew 28 percent in Hawaii County and 23 

team examined selected census indicators 

percent in Maui County (compared with 

on residence 1 year before the census and 

24 and 21 percent for the total population 

the date the household moved into the 

in those counties, respectively). Because 

home as proxies for mobility. Across these 

the Native Hawaiian population grew by a 

indicators, the findings consistently showed 

larger percentage than the total population 

that the Native Hawaiian population is 

in Honolulu County (19 percent for Native 

slightly less mobile than the other residents 

Hawaiians compared with only 9 percent for 

of Hawaii population. First, Native Hawaiians 

the total population), Native Hawaiians still 

were more likely to live in the same place as 

accounted for 19 percent of the population 

in the previous year. In Hawaii, during the 

of Honolulu County in 2010.

2006-to-2010 period, 86 percent of Native 

Hawaiians lived in the same place 1 year 

Much of this growth was concentrated 

before the survey data collection, which was 

among the Native Hawaiian multiracial 

slightly higher than the rate for residents of 

population. The Native Hawaiian-alone 

Hawaii (84 percent). The Native Hawaiian 

population remained constant during the 

share varied by only a small margin, from 

decade in the state overall, and changes 

85 percent in Maui County to 87 percent in 

in that group by county were modest: an 

Kauai County. 

increase of 9 percent in Hawaii County and 

3 percent in Kauai County, with no change 

Second, if they moved, Native Hawaiians 

in Maui County and a loss of 3 percent 

were more likely to still live in the same 

in Honolulu County. The Native Hawaiian 

county as in the previous year. Of those 

multiracial population, however, grew 37 

Native Hawaiians living in a different place 

percent in Hawaii and Maui Counties and 29 

than in the previous year, the majority (84 

percent in Kauai and Honolulu Counties. 

percent) were still living in the same county 

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

compared with only 56 percent among 

one-half (48 percent) of Native Hawaiian 

residents of Hawaii. The Native Hawaiian 

households had moved into their current 

share was between 84 and 87 percent in 

residences before 2000 compared with 44 

Hawaii, Honolulu, and Maui Counties but was 

percent of residents of Hawaii. Among the 

much lower (74 percent) in Kauai County. 

counties, Kauai had the highest proportion 

(53 percent) of Native Hawaiians moving 

Third, Native Hawaiians were also more 

in before 2000 and Hawaii County had the 

likely to have moved into their homes 

lowest (45 percent).

before 2000. From 2006 to 2010, nearly 

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Section 3. Demographic, 

(under age 18) and smaller shares of 

seniors (age 65 and older), than is the 

Social, and Economic 

residents of Hawaii population. 

•  Native Hawaiian households are larger 

Conditions

than residents of Hawaii households. 

•  Native Hawaiian households are more 

likely to be families with children than are 

This section of the report describes 

residents of Hawaii households. 

the demographic, social, and economic 

conditions of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii, 

•  Native Hawaiians have lower levels 

including age structure, household size and 

of educational attainment than do 

type, educational attainment, employment 

residents of Hawaii, with larger shares 

levels, income, and poverty. Native Hawaiians 

having attained no higher than a high 

and residents of Hawaii are compared across 

school diploma or general educational 

these domains at the state and county levels 

development (GED) certificate and smaller 

from 2000 to 2010. Given the significance 

shares having attained a bachelor’s or 

of the Great Recession to the national 

graduate degree. 

economy during this decade, this section 

•  Native Hawaiians participate in the 

also examines employment levels, income, 

civilian labor force at higher rates than 

and poverty to better understand the Great 

do residents of Hawaii (the latter have 

Recession’s impact on Native Hawaiians.

higher rates of military participation, given 

Comparing census data across years can 

the U.S. Department of Defense’s strong 

necessitate the use of different data sets. 

presence in the state), but they work in 

For the first set of topics (age structure, 

lower-wage service industry jobs and 

household size, and household type), the 

have higher unemployment rates. 

research team used the 2000 and 2010 

•  Although improvements have been made 

decennial censuses because these topics 

during the 2000-to-2010 decade, Native 

are fully covered in both years. For the other 

Hawaiians have lower incomes, higher 

topics (educational attainment, employment 

rates of assistance receipt, and higher 

levels, income, and poverty), the team 

poverty rates than do residents of Hawaii. 

compared 2000 decennial census long-

form data with the 2006-to-2010 American 

•  Native Hawaiians were disproportionately 

Community Survey (ACS) 5-year estimates 

hurt by the Great Recession when compared 

selected population tables. To examine the 

with residents of Hawaii. From 2008 to 

impact of the Great Recession, the research 

2011, the economic conditions for Native 

team used 2008 and 2011 ACS 1-year 

Hawaiians worsened across all the indicators 

estimates to cover the periods just before 

examined, increasing their employment, 

and after that recession. 

income, and poverty challenges.

Key Findings 

Age Distribution

Key findings from this section include—

The Native Hawaiian population tends to 

be younger than the residents of Hawaii 

•  The Native Hawaiian population is 

population (exhibit 3.1). In 2010, the share 

younger, with larger shares of children 

of the Native Hawaiian population under 

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

age 20 was 39 percent compared with only 

compared with 16 percent of residents of 

21 percent among the residents of Hawaii 

Hawaii. This pattern held consistently across 

population. This pattern was similar across 

counties, with about 7 percent of the Native 

counties: the Native Hawaiian share ranged 

Hawaiian populations of Hawaii, Kauai, and 

from 38 percent in Honolulu County to 41 

Maui Counties and about 8 percent of the 

percent in Hawaii and Kauai Counties in 

Native Hawaiian population of Honolulu 

2010, and it was consistently about double 

County falling into this age group compared 

the share of residents of Hawaii. Further, 

with 18 percent of the residents of Hawaii 

this pattern did not change much during 

populations of Hawaii and Kauai Counties, 16 

the 2000-to-2010 decade. The share of 

percent of the residents of Hawaii population 

the population that was less than 20 years 

in Honolulu County, and 15 percent of the 

old declined by similar margins during 

residents of Hawaii population in Maui 

the decade among Native Hawaiians and 

County. At the state level and across most of 

residents of Hawaii (3 and 2 percent, 

the counties, both the Native Hawaiian and 

respectively), so the difference between the 

residents of Hawaii shares increased about 1 

two groups stayed about the same.

percentage point.

In addition, the share of the Native Hawaiian 

Higher birth rates and shorter life spans 

population age 65 and older is much 

among Native Hawaiians residing in Hawaii 

smaller than the share among the residents 

compared with other residents in Hawaii 

of Hawaii population. In 2010, 7 percent 

help to explain this pattern. According to 

of Native Hawaiians were 65 or older 

Exhibit 3.1. Share of Population by Age Group and Native Hawaiian Identification, 2010

40

35

30

25

Native 

Hawaiian

20

Resident 

of Hawaii

15

Percent of the population

10

5

0

Less than 20 years

65 years and older

Age group

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2010 decennial census.

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

the ACS 2006-to-2010 selected population 

defined as having five or more members. 

tables, in the United States overall, the birth 

In 2010, the share of Native Hawaiian 

rate is 56 births per 1,000 women between 

households that were large (27 percent) 

the ages of 15 and 50. In Hawaii, the rate for 

was almost twice that of residents of Hawaii 

the total population is slightly higher, at 59 

households (14 percent). The Native Hawaiian 

births. Among Native Hawaiian women in 

share of large households was higher than 

Hawaii, the rate is substantially higher, at 71 

the residents of Hawaii share in every 

births per 1,000 women. Further, although 

county. For more information on county-

life expectancy for Native Hawaiians has 

level variation, see appendix A. The change 

increased by 11.8 years, to 74.3 years, since 

in the shares of large households during the 

1950, it remains 6.2 years less than the life 

decade was small, with the Native Hawaiian 

expectancy for the state (Look et al., 2013) 

share increasing only 1 percentage point from 

and between 4.7 and 11.8 years less than 

2000 to 2010 and the share for residents of 

other substantial racial groups in Hawaii, 

Hawaii holding constant. 

including Caucasians, Chinese, Filipinos, and 

Japanese (State of Hawaii, 2013: table 2.10). 

Household Type 

Life expectancies notably have improved for 

Overall, Native Hawaiian households were 

all racial groups over time, but the disparity 

more likely to be families with children, both 

between Native Hawaiians and other groups 

in married couple-headed and single parent-

has remained consistent in magnitude since 

headed households, than were residents of 

the 1950s (Ka’opua et al., 2011).

Hawaii households.12 In 2010, 23 percent of 

Household Size

Native Hawaiian households were headed by 

a married couple and included children under 

In Hawaii, Native Hawaiian households 

age 18 compared with 20 percent of residents 

tend to be larger than other households. In 

of Hawaii households. Further, 15 percent of 

2010, the average size for Native Hawaiian 

Native Hawaiian households were headed by a 

households was 4.1 persons compared 

single parent with children, which is more than 

with 2.7 persons for residents of Hawaii 

twice the rate among other residents of Hawaii 

households. The average size varied by a 

households (6 percent). The Native Hawaiian 

small amount among the different counties. 

share of both married couple households with 

The average Native Hawaiian household size 

children and single-parent households with 

ranged from 3.9 persons in Hawaii and Maui 

children is higher than the share for residents 

Counties to 4.2 persons in Honolulu County, 

of Hawaii households in every county. The 

and the residents of Hawaii household size 

shares of both married couple and single-

ranged from 2.4 persons in Hawaii County to  parent households with children have declined 2.8 persons in Honolulu County. The average 

during the decade among Native Hawaiian 

household size stayed consistent during 

and residents of Hawaii households by similar 

the 2000-to-2010 decade at the state and 

margins (about 4 percentage points for 

county levels for both Native Hawaiian and 

married couple households with children and 

residents of Hawaii households.

about 0.5 to 1 percentage point for single-

parent households with children). 

Consistent with having larger average 

household sizes, a greater share of Native 

During the same period (2000 to 2010), 

Hawaiian households were large households, 

other family household arrangements 

12  The U.S. Census Bureau defines a family as a householder and one or more persons related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption (http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/about/).

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

became more common among Native 

 or an associate’s degree (about 31 percent 

Hawaiians and residents of Hawaii. In 2010, 

among both groups) in Hawaii during the 

Native Hawaiian households had a higher 

2006-to-2010 period, but Native Hawaiians 

share of households (15 percent) in other 

had much lower rates of attainment of a 

family arrangements than residents of Hawaii  bachelor’s or graduate degree. During the households (10 percent).13 This difference 

2006-to-2010 period, only 15 percent of 

persisted in all four counties analyzed in this 

Native Hawaiians had at least a bachelor’s 

report, and the variation among counties 

degree, which is less than one-half the rate 

was small (the Native Hawaiian household 

(32 percent) for residents of Hawaii. Although 

share ranged from 13 to 16 percent, and the 

variation exists in these shares by county, 

residents of Hawaii share ranged from 8 to 

the disparity persists in all four counties. 

11 percent). During the decade, the share of 

The Native Hawaiian share was lowest in 

other family households in Hawaii increased 

Maui County, where only 9 percent of Native 

for both Native Hawaiian and residents of 

Hawaiians had at least a bachelor’s degree, 

Hawaii households, but the Native Hawaiian 

and was highest in Honolulu County, where 

share increased by a slightly larger amount, 

the share reached 16 percent. The residents of 

increasing 2 percentage points from 2000 

Hawaii share ranged from 26 percent in Kauai 

to 2010 compared with a 1-percentage point 

County to 34 percent in Honolulu County. 

increase for residents of Hawaii households. 

During the 2000-to-2010 decade, the 

Educational Attainment

educational attainment for both groups 

improved. At the state level, the share of the 

Overall, Native Hawaiians have lower levels 

population without a high school diploma 

of educational attainment than do residents 

declined about 5 percentage points for both 

of Hawaii. Although similar shares (about 10 

Native Hawaiians and residents of Hawaii. 

percent) of the Native Hawaiian and residents  The shares for higher levels of educational of Hawaii populations had not received a high  attainment (high school diploma, some school diploma during the 2006-to-2010 

college, and bachelor’s degree or higher) 

period, nearly one-half (44 percent) of the 

correspondingly increased for both groups. 

Native Hawaiian population had attained no 

The improvement for Native Hawaiians 

higher than a high school diploma (or GED) 

was more concentrated at the high school 

compared with only 26 percent of residents 

diploma and some college levels; the 

of Hawaii (exhibit 3.2). The Native Hawaiian 

improvement for residents of Hawaii was 

share that had a high school diploma or GED 

primarily in the share of the population with 

but no higher education was consistently 

at least a bachelor’s degree (exhibit 3.3). The 

higher than the share for residents of Hawaii 

Native Hawaiian share of the population with 

in all four counties. The size of the disparity 

only a high school diploma increased about 

varied. In Kauai County, the disparity was the 

1 percentage point, and the residents of 

smallest (11 percentage points) and, in Maui 

Hawaii share stayed about the same during 

County, the disparity was the largest (23 

the decade. The Native Hawaiian share 

percentage points).

with some college or an associate’s degree 

Similar shares of Native Hawaiians and 

increased about 2 percentage points, and 

residents of Hawaii completed some college

the residents of Hawaii share increased only 

1 percentage point. By contrast, the Native 

13  The “other family” category is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as male- or female-headed family households without children under age 18 (Pettit et al., 2014).

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Exhibit 3.2. Educational Attainment by Native Hawaiian Identification in the State of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010

45

40

35

30

25

Native 

Hawaiian

Resident 

20

of Hawaii

15

Percent of population age 25 and older

10

5

0

Without a high school diploma or school GED

With a high school diploma or school GED

With some college or associate’s degree

With a bachelor’s degree or graduate degree

Educational attainment category

GED = general educational development.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables Hawaiian share with a bachelor’s or graduate 

points. The corresponding improvement at 

degree increased about 2 percentage points, 

the other levels was primarily in the share 

and the residents of Hawaii share increased 

of Native Hawaiians with some college or 

4 percentage points.

an associate’s degree. That share increased 

5 percentage points, but the share with a 

This general trend was observed in three of 

bachelor’s or graduate degree increased 

the four counties included in this analysis, 

only 1 percentage point. 

with Kauai County being the exception. 

There, the residents of Hawaii population 

Labor Force Characteristics

followed the general trend observed at the 

state level (described previously). The Native 

This subsection examines several indicators 

Hawaiian population exhibited a different 

related to employment. The state of Hawaii 

pattern of change during the decade. 

is compared with the United States overall to 

The share without a high school diploma 

identify ways in which Hawaii is unique, and 

declined only 1 percentage point, and the 

the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii 

share with a high school diploma but no 

is compared with the other residents of 

higher education declined 6 percentage 

Hawaii population. The analysis specifically 

considers the following indicators. 

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Exhibit 3.3. Percent Change in Share by Educational Attainment Level and Native Hawaiian Identification, 2000 and 2006 to 2010

4

3

With some college or associate’s degree

2

1

Without a high school diploma 

or school GED

0

Native 

With a high school diploma or school GED

With a bachedlor’s degree 

Hawaiian

or graduate degree

Resident 

-1

of Hawaii

-2

Percent of population age 25 and older

-3

-4

-5

-6

GED = general educational development.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables

•  Labor force participation rate: the share of 

Comparing Hawaii With the United 

the population age 16 and older in the labor 

States

force that was either working or looking for 

work in either civilian jobs or in the military.

The labor force characteristics of the state of 

Hawaii differ from those of the United States 

•  Civilian labor force participation rate: the 

as a whole in a few ways. The civilian labor 

share of the population age 16 and older 

force participation rate in Hawaii (63 percent) 

in the civilian labor force that was either 

was slightly less than the national rate of 65 

working or looking for work. 

percent during the 2006-to-2010 period. The 

•  Employment rate: the percentage of 

employment rates for the United States and 

population age 16 and older that was 

Hawaii were about the same, both around 

employed in civilian jobs. 

59.5 percent, but the unemployment rate for 

Hawaii (6 percent) was less than the U.S. rate 

•  Unemployment rate: the share of the 

(8 percent). The most significant difference is 

civilian labor force that was unemployed. 

that Hawaii has a large military presence, with 

each branch of the military having military 

•  Military participation rate: the share of the 

bases in the state (http://militarybases.com/

population age 16 and older in the military. 

hawaii/). In Hawaii, about 4 percent of the 

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

population age 16 and older is in the Armed 

at about 7 percentage points. The share for 

Forces, about 8 times the 0.5-percent rate for  both groups increased about 3 percentage the United States as a whole.

points for Native Hawaiians and 2 percentage 

points for residents of Hawaii.

Comparing Within Hawaii 

Military participation accounted for a much 

When the labor force characteristics of the 

larger share of the residents of Hawaii labor 

Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii were 

force participation than it did of the Native 

compared with those of the residents of 

Hawaiians' labor force participation. During 

Hawaii population, the analysis showed that 

the 2006-to-2010 period, less than 1 percent 

Native Hawaiians had higher labor force 

of Native Hawaiians residing in Hawaii were 

participation and employment rates but that 

in the military compared with 4 percent of 

they also had higher unemployment rates 

residents of Hawaii. Military participation was 

and were more concentrated in low-paid 

overwhelmingly concentrated in Honolulu 

service jobs than were residents of Hawaii.14

County, the home of most of the military 

The remainder of this subsection explores 

installations in the state (http://militarybases.

each of these trends in turn. 

com/hawaii/). In Honolulu County, 1 percent of Native Hawaiians and 6 percent of residents 

First, the Native Hawaiian population 

of Hawaii were in the Armed Forces. In the 

participated in the labor force (including 

other three counties, the Native Hawaiian rate 

civilian and military) at higher rates than the 

was 0.2 percent and the residents of Hawaii 

residents of Hawaii population: 69 percent 

rate ranged from 0.1 percent in Hawaii County 

of Native Hawaiians age 16 and older were 

to 0.4 percent in Kauai County. During the 

in the labor force compared with 67 percent 

2000-to-2010 decade, military participation 

of residents of Hawaii (exhibit 3.4). Although 

for residents of Hawaii decreased about 1 

the Native Hawaiian rate was higher in every 

percentage point, from 5 percent in 2000, but 

county, the size of the difference between the 

the share of Native Hawaiians in the military 

two populations during the decade varied by 

stayed about the same. 

county. In Honolulu County, the disparity was 

the smallest, at about 1 percentage point. In 

By contrast, Native Hawaiians residing in Hawaii 

Hawaii County, the disparity was the largest, 

had much higher rates of participation in the 

14  The labor force participation rate includes both employed and unemployed workers. To be classified as unemployed, however, one must either be not working and seeking employment or laid off from a previous job and waiting to return. 

Exhibit 3.4. Labor Force Characteristics for the State of Hawaii, by Native Hawaiian Identification, 2000 and 2006 to 2010

2006-to-2010 Rates

Percent Change From 2000

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawai

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawai

Percent of population age 16 and older

In labor force

68.7

66.5

2.8

2.2

In civilian labor force

68.1

62.1

2.6

2.7

Unemployment rate

9.1

4.8

– 0.7

– 0.6

Employment rate

61.9

59.1

2.8

3

In military

0.6

4.4

0.2

– 0.5

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000; U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

19

Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

civilian labor force. During the 2006-to-2010 

also lowest in Honolulu County, at 4 percent, 

period, the Native Hawaiian rate of 68 percent 

but was highest in Hawaii County, at 7 percent. 

substantially exceeded the 62-percent rate for 

During the 2000-to-2010 decade, both rates 

residents of Hawaii. The Native Hawaiian rate 

at the state level declined about 1 percentage 

was higher than the residents of Hawaii rate in 

point, from 10 percent for Native Hawaiians 

every county, but variation existed. The civilian 

and 6 percent for residents of Hawaii in 2000. 

labor force participation rate was lowest for 

Native Hawaiians and residents of Hawaii in 

The higher unemployment for Native 

Honolulu County, where the rates were 67 and 

Hawaiians may be related to the industries 

61 percent, respectively. The rates were highest 

in which they tended to be employed. 

in Maui County, where the Native Hawaiian rate 

During the 2006-to-2010 period, the highest 

was 72 percent and the residents of Hawaii 

concentrations of Native Hawaiians were 

rate was 70 percent. During the 2000-to-2010 

employed in four industries: (1) construction; 

decade, the civilian labor force participation 

(2) retail services; (3) educational services, 

rate increased for both groups. In 2000, the 

health care, and social assistance; and 

rates were 65 percent for Native Hawaiians and 

(4) the arts, entertainment, recreation, 

59 percent for residents of Hawaii. Because 

accommodation, and food services industries. 

the rates improved by similar amounts for both 

These four industries, which accounted for 

groups, the size of the difference between 

approximately 60 percent of Native Hawaiian 

them has held constant at about 6 percent 

employment in Hawaii, are vulnerable to 

during the decade. 

shifts in the economy that can affect local 

consumption of goods and services, tourist 

Native Hawaiians also had a higher 

volume, and infrastructure development. The 

employment rate than did residents 

seasonal nature of tourism may make Native 

of Hawaii. About 62 percent of Native 

Hawaiians particularly susceptible to periodic 

Hawaiians were employed during the 2006-

unemployment. Although the significant 

to-2010 period; the rate for residents of 

military presence in the state and Honolulu 

Hawaii was about 59 percent. This trend 

County in particular provides some ongoing 

held in three of the four counties, with 

level of demand for goods and services 

Maui County being the exception. The 

(Hosek, Litovitz, and Resnick, 2011), Native 

employment rates for both groups increased 

Hawaiians are less likely than the residents of 

about 3 percentage points during the 2000-

Hawaii to participate in the military, which is 

to-2010 decade. In 2000, the employment 

less responsive to economic shifts.

rate was 59 percent for Native Hawaiians 

and 56 percent for residents of Hawaii. 

Income and Poverty

The Native Hawaiian population also had a 

In general, Native Hawaiians residing in 

much higher unemployment rate than did the 

Hawaii had (1) lower incomes, (2) higher 

residents of Hawaii population. During the 

rates of receipt for means-tested assistance 

2006-to-2010 period, the Native Hawaiian 

programs, and (3) higher poverty rates than 

unemployment rate was 9 percent, nearly 

did residents of Hawaii. This subsection first 

twice the 5-percent rate for residents of 

provides context for income levels in Hawaii 

Hawaii. The Native Hawaiian unemployment 

by comparing Hawaii with the United States 

rate varied appreciably by county. It was 

overall, and then analyzes the differences 

lowest in Honolulu County, at 7 percent, and 

between Native Hawaiians and residents 

highest in Maui County, at 12 percent. The 

of Hawaii in terms of income, receipt of 

unemployment rate for residents of Hawaii was 

assistance, and poverty. 

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Comparing Hawaii With the  

Native Hawaiian households received some 

United States

form of public cash assistance income (for 

example, through the federal Temporary 

Household incomes in Hawaii, in general, 

Assistance for Needy Families program or 

were higher than in the United States. 

the State of Hawaii Department of Human 

During the 2006-to-2010 period, the median 

Services General Assistance program), 

income for all households in the state of 

which was more than twice the 3-percent 

Hawaii was about $66,400 per year, about 

rate for residents of Hawaii households. 

$14,500 higher than the median income 

Native Hawaiian households also had higher 

for all households in the United States 

rates of receiving benefits from the federal 

($51,900). Although this difference may 

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program 

seem to indicate a higher level of economic 

(SNAP) during this period: 15 percent of 

prosperity in Hawaii, it does not account for 

Native Hawaiian households received SNAP 

the higher cost of living in Hawaii. The cost of 

benefits compared with 6 percent of residents 

living, as reported in table 728, Cost of Living 

of Hawaii households. 

Index—Selected Urban Areas (U.S. Census 

Bureau, 2012), placed Honolulu, Hawaii as the 

In addition to having lower incomes and higher 

third highest in the country, at 1.7 times the 

rates of assistance receipt, Native Hawaiians 

national average, which was exceeded by 

tended to have higher poverty rates compared 

only Brooklyn and Manhattan in New York.15 

with residents of Hawaii.16 During the 2006-to-

2010 period, the poverty rate among Native 

Comparing Within Hawaii 

Hawaiians residing in Hawaii was 12 percent, 

and the rate among residents of Hawaii was 

Within Hawaii, Native Hawaiians had a 

9 percent. This general trend held in three of 

lower median income than all households. 

the four counties, with Kauai County being the 

The median income for Native Hawaiian 

exception. There, the poverty rate for residents 

households was about $62,900 during the 

of Hawaii (9 percent) exceeded the Native 

2006-to-2010 period compared with about 

Hawaiian rate (8 percent) by a small margin. 

$66,400 for all households in Hawaii. In 

every county, the Native Hawaiian median 

Although the poverty rate for Native Hawaiians 

household income was less than the median 

tended to be higher than the rate for residents 

for all households. The size of the disparity 

of Hawaii, the extent of the disparity closed 

varied by county, from only $1,000 in Hawaii 

during the decade. From 2000 to the 2006-

County to $11,000 in Maui County.

to-2010 period, the poverty rate among 

residents of Hawaii held constant, at about 

Further, Native Hawaiian households in 

9 percent. The Native Hawaiian poverty rate 

Hawaii accessed means-tested assistance 

declined 4 percentage points from 16 percent 

programs at higher rates than did residents 

in 2000, which closed some of the gap 

of Hawaii households. For example, during 

between the two groups on this measure. 

the 2006-to-2010 period, 7 percent of 

15  The Cost of Living (COL) Index measures relative price levels for consumer goods and services in selected locations across the country. 

The goods and services captured in the index include grocery items, housing, utilities, transportation, health care, and miscellaneous goods and services. The score or index for each locale is the percentage of the national average for that category of goods and services or all goods and services as a composite. In 2010, Honolulu’s COL was 166 percent of the national average. For comparison, COLs in other urban areas are 164 percent in San Francisco, California; 128 percent in Anchorage, Alaska; 113 percent in Chapel Hill, North Carolina; 101 

percent in Cleveland, Ohio; and 87 percent in Indianapolis, Indiana. In 2010, only two locations in the index had a higher COL than Honolulu: Brooklyn, New York (182 percent) and Manhattan, New York (217 percent) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011: table 728). 

16  The Census Bureau uses money income thresholds to determine poverty. These thresholds are based on family size and composition and are not adjusted for local cost-of-living variation. They are not based on individual income, and all members of a family are assigned to the same threshold regardless of their personal income. Thresholds are updated for inflation by using the Consumer Price Index. 

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

How the Native Hawaiian Population  to 2011, the Native Hawaiian employment Fared in the Great Recession

rate dropped 7 percentage points, but the 

residents of Hawaii rate decreased only 

So far, the analysis has compared the 

3 percentage points. Because the Native 

conditions of Native Hawaiians with those 

Hawaiian employment rate declined more 

of residents of Hawaii from 2000 to 2010 or 

than the rate for residents of Hawaii, much 

from 2006 to 2010, but it has not addressed 

of the Native Hawaiian population’s previous 

the impact of the Great Recession on Native 

advantage on this indicator was eroded. 

Hawaiians. This subsection uses ACS 1-year 

By 2011, the employment rate for Native 

estimates from 2008 and 2011 to examine 

Hawaiians was 58 percent and for residents 

how the Great Recession affected the Native 

of Hawaii it was 57 percent.

Hawaiian population living in Hawaii by 

examining five indicators: (1) the employment  The Native Hawaiian unemployment rate rate, (2) the unemployment rate, (3) the rate 

also increased appreciably during the Great 

of cash public assistance receipt, (4) the 

Recession. In 2008, the Native Hawaiian 

rate of SNAP benefit receipt, and (5) the 

population already had an unemployment 

poverty rate. For the first four indicators, the 

rate (6 percent) that was higher than that 

conditions of the Native Hawaiian population 

of residents of Hawaii (4 percent), and the 

were compared with that of the residents of 

Great Recession’s impact on unemployment 

Hawaii population. For poverty rate, however, 

was more severe among Native Hawaiians 

the Native Hawaiian rate was compared with 

than residents of Hawaii. The Native Hawaiian 

that of the total population of Hawaii because  unemployment rate more than doubled, the data needed to calculate residents of 

reaching 13 percent in 2011. The residents of 

Hawaii rates were unavailable.17 Across all 

Hawaii rate increased as well, but it increased 

these indicators, the analysis found greater 

only 3 percentage points, to 7 percent in 

impacts of the Great Recession on Native 

2011.

Hawaiians (exhibit 3.5).

The disparities in cash public assistance 

The employment rate for Native Hawaiians in 

receipt between the Native Hawaiian 

2008 was about 65 percent and for residents  population and the residents of Hawaii of Hawaii was about 60 percent. From 2008 

population also increased during the course 

17  The U.S. Census Bureau provides the poverty rates for Native Hawaiians in Hawaii, but it does not provide the raw counts, so it was not possible to tabulate the statistics for the non-Native Hawaiian population (termed in this report “residents of Hawaii”). 

Exhibit 3.5. Economic Indicators for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, 2008 and 2011

2008

2011

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawai

Difference

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawai

Difference

Employment rate

65.3

59.8

5.5

58.2

56.9

1.3

Unemployment rate

5.6

3.7

1.9

12.7

6.5

6.2

Percent with cash public 

6.4

2.6

3.8

9.7

3.3

6.4

assistance income

Percent with SNAP benefits

14.6

6.0

8.6

22.8

8.7

14.1

SNAP = Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. 

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 and 2011 American Community Survey 1-year estimates HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

22

Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

of the Great Recession. In 2008, about 

increased only 3 percentage points, to 9 

6 percent of Native Hawaiians received 

percent, substantially increasing the gap 

cash public assistance income compared 

between the two groups on this measure. 

with only 3 percent of residents of Hawaii. 

Between 2008 and 2011, the Native Hawaiian 

In 2008, the Native Hawaiian poverty rate 

rate increased to 10 percent, but the rate for 

(10 percent) was slightly higher than the 

residents of Hawaii stayed about the same. 

rate for the total population of the state of 

Hawaii (9 percent) (exhibit 3.6). Between 

In 2008, about 15 percent of Native 

2008 and 2011, however, the Native Hawaiian 

Hawaiians received SNAP benefits, but only 

poverty rate rose 7 percentage points to 

6 percent of residents of Hawaii did. By 

reach 17 percent in 2011. By contrast, the 

2011, 23 percent of Native Hawaiians were 

total population rate rose only 3 percentage 

receiving SNAP (an 8 percentage point 

points to reach 12 percent in 2011.

increase), but the rate for residents of Hawaii 

Exhibit 3.6. Poverty Rate for Total and Native Hawaiian Populations, 2008 to 2011

Total

Native Hawaiian

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

Percent of the population for whom poverty status is determined

2

0

2008

2011

Year

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 and 2011 American Community Survey 1-year estimates HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

23

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Section 4. Housing 

lower for rental units, suggesting a 

tighter housing market. 

Conditions and Needs

•  Native Hawaiian households were more 

likely to live in older housing and more 

likely to live in single-family detached 

Using U.S. Census Bureau data sources 

homes than were residents of Hawaii 

and information gleaned from interviews 

households. 

with stakeholders in Hawaii, this section 

•  The Native Hawaiian rate of homeownership 

describes the housing market, including 

lagged behind the rate for residents 

the types, age, size, and values of housing 

of Hawaii, despite a preference for 

in Hawaii in comparison with the market in 

homeownership over renting among Native 

the United States as a whole and compares 

Hawaiians. Further, when Native Hawaiians 

housing information for Native Hawaiians 

owned homes, those homes tended to 

and residents of Hawaii. The analysis looks at 

be valued at less than homes owned by 

selected indicators of housing problems and 

residents of Hawaii, both at the state level 

needs, including overcrowding, affordability, 

and within every county. 

and kitchen and plumbing facilities 

problems. In addition, the results from 2000 

•  Native Hawaiian households faced higher 

and 2010 were compared with those from 

rates of facilities problems compared 

1990 reported in Mikelsons et al. (1995). The 

with residents of Hawaii households, 

data presented for Native Hawaiians in this 

as evidenced by their higher rates of 

section include all respondents in Hawaii 

incomplete plumbing and incomplete 

who self-identified as Native Hawaiian in the 

kitchens. Native Hawaiians also 

census, including Native Hawaiians residing 

experienced higher rates of overcrowding, 

on the Hawaiian home lands. Section 5 

but they had slightly lower rates of 

presents data pertaining specifically to 

affordability problems. 

housing needs and conditions on the 

Hawaiian home lands. 

•  Affordability challenges were more 

acute in Hawaii than in the United States 

Key Findings

overall, with the percentage of households 

that were cost burdened among both 

Key findings from this section include—

Native Hawaiian and residents of 

•  Housing stock growth in Hawaii was 

Hawaii populations (40 and 42 percent, 

similar to the rate of growth in the United 

respectively) surpassing the national 

States overall. Within the state, Honolulu 

cost burden rate of 36 percent. Despite 

County saw the least new development, 

the slightly lower rate among Native 

reflecting the State’s development 

Hawaiians, stakeholders from a range of 

priorities in the other counties. 

organizations noted the importance of 

the affordability problem among Native 

•  Vacancies in Hawaii were dominated 

Hawaiians and indicated that they cope 

by vacation homes (that is, units for 

with this challenge through extended-

seasonal, recreational, or occasional use). 

family living or overcrowding, taking 

Vacancy rates among units available for 

on additional jobs, or moving to less 

permanent residences in Hawaii were 

expensive areas farther from employment. 

similar to rates in the United States 

overall for homeowner units and were 

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

•  Homelessness among Native Hawaiians 

the intended purpose of the housing stock. 

was a significant problem. Although 

Housing on the coast or near other resort-

they were not frequently chronically 

type areas tends to cater to the short-term 

homeless, Native Hawaiians who were 

rental and vacation home market. Primary 

homeless were often working but could 

residences predominate in the inland areas. 

not afford housing. They ended up 

Size and style may reflect the intended 

doubled up or living in tents, shelters, 

purposes (for example, studio apartments 

cars, or garages, and they were 

intended for short-term rentals in a high-

disproportionately represented among 

rise condominium-style building versus 

the homeless population.

four-bedroom, single-family homes with full 

kitchens and storage space). 

Housing Stock

The total number of housing units in Hawaii 

The housing stock in Hawaii includes a 

increased 13 percent from 465,000 in 2000 

variety of types, such as single-family 

to 520,000 in 2010 (exhibit 4.1). This increase 

detached homes, townhouses, and 

is similar to the rate of housing stock growth 

multifamily housing such as apartments. 

in the United States overall (14 percent). The 

Some housing is built with the intention of 

most growth occurred in Hawaii County, 

serving as vacation or investment property, 

and the least growth occurred in Honolulu 

including short-term rentals such as 

County. The low rate of growth in Honolulu 

condotels and fractionals, but other housing 

County reflects the State’s emphasis on 

is built to serve as a principal residence for 

increasing development on islands other than 

year-round use.18 Location often affects 

Oahu (Mikelsons et al., 1995). 

18  Condotels are privately owned properties, generally small units (up to three bedrooms) built in multifamily style that share common amenities and a third-party management firm that offers, for a fee, services for the property in the manner of a hotel (for example, facilitating short-term rentals, housekeeping, maintenance). Major hotel brands have all entered the condotel market. Villas and other free-standing residences in the same arrangement are often called “fractionals” (Bradley-Hole, 2007). Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000 and 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Selected Population Tables Exhibit 4.1. Housing Stock in the State of Hawaii by County, 2000 and 2006 to 2010

600,000

500,000

400,000

Maui County

Kauai County

300,000

Hawaii County

Honolulu County

Number of Units

200,000

100,000

0

2000

2006–2010

Year

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000 and 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Selected Population Tables HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Vacancy Rate

and rental vacancy rates varied less. Across 

all counties, the homeowner vacancy rate 

Hawaii had a slightly higher rate of vacant 

in 2010 ranged from a low of only 1 percent 

units overall than did the United States, a 

in Honolulu County to a high of 3 percent in 

situation that was largely driven by vacancies 

Hawaii County. The rate in Kauai and Maui 

in seasonal or vacation homes. Vacancy 

Counties was 2 percent. The rental vacancy 

rates for permanent residences in Hawaii 

rate varied somewhat more. Honolulu 

were lower than in the United States overall, 

County also had the lowest rental vacancy 

suggesting a tighter housing market in Hawaii. 

rate (6 percent). The rental vacancy rate in 

In 2010, 12 percent of all housing units in 

Hawaii and Kauai Counties was 12 percent 

Hawaii were vacant compared with 11 percent 

and in Maui County it was 13 percent.

of all units in the United States.19 Nearly one-

half of the vacancies in Hawaii (47 percent) 

The number of housing units and vacancies 

were seasonal, recreational, or occasional-use 

cannot be used alone as indicators of 

properties. When accounting only for units 

housing availability and need. Many 

that were vacant and for rent or for sale, the 

factors affect the appropriateness and 

vacancy rate among homeowner properties 

usability of the existing housing stock to 

in Hawaii was 2 percent, and the rental 

the local population, including location 

vacancy rate was 8 percent. The homeowner 

and accessibility, size, quality, type, and 

vacancy rate in Hawaii was about the same 

affordability. The discussion that follows 

as the rate in the United States, and the rental 

sheds light on some of these factors.

rate in Hawaii was 1 percentage point lower 

Homeownership

than the rate (9 percent) in the United States. 

The overall, homeowner, and rental vacancy 

The state of Hawaii has much lower 

rates in Hawaii did not change appreciably 

homeownership rates than does the 

during the 2000-to-2010 decade. 

United States overall. In 2010, Hawaii’s 

At the county level, the share of units that 

homeownership rate was 58 percent 

were vacant varied considerably, but much of 

compared with 65 percent for the United 

the variation was because of vacation home 

States as a whole. In that year, Hawaii 

vacancies. In Honolulu County, only 8 percent 

had the fourth lowest homeownership 

of all units were vacant, but, in the remaining 

rate of any state or territory, after the 

counties, these shares were much higher (12 

District of Columbia (42 percent), New 

percent in Hawaii County, 22 percent in Kauai 

York (53 percent), and California (56 

County, and 23 percent in Maui County). In 

percent). Homeownership is increasing 

Kauai and Maui Counties, more than one-

slightly in Hawaii, but it is decreasing 

half (60 and 64 percent, respectively) of the 

nationwide. Between 2000 and 2010, the 

vacant units were for seasonal, recreational, 

homeownership rate in the United States 

or occasional use. Although the shares of 

declined about 1 percentage point, and the 

vacation vacancies were lower in Hawaii and 

homeownership rate in Hawaii increased 

Honolulu Counties, they were still appreciable 

about 1 percentage point. 

(47 and 34 percent, respectively). 

The homeownership rate among Native 

Considering only nonvacation properties for 

Hawaiians in Hawaii was lower than for the 

sale or for rent, the county-level homeowner 

state overall. In 2010, 55 percent of Native 

19  In census data, housing units are considered vacant if they are habitable but unoccupied. The U.S. Census Bureau identified such units on April 1, 2010, and then confirmed they were vacant in July and August 2010 (https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-07.pdf). 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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26

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Hawaiian households were homeowners 

residents of Hawaii (58 percent for Native 

compared with the overall 58-percent 

Hawaiians compared with 68 percent for 

rate. The Native Hawaiian homeownership 

residents of Hawaii).

rate did not vary appreciably by county: 

it was about 58 percent in Hawaii County 

It is notable that Native Hawaiian 

and about 54 percent in the other three 

homeownership rates remained low despite 

counties. During the 2000-to-2010 decade, 

a general preference for homeownership 

the homeownership rate decreased in 

over renting. Stakeholder interviews 

both Kauai and Maui Counties (0.3 and 2 

suggested that Native Hawaiians prefer 

percentage points, respectively), indicating 

owning to renting partly because of the 

a shift toward rental in these areas. The 

perception that an owner has fewer rules 

homeownership rate for Hawaii and 

and regulations to follow than does a 

Honolulu Counties, however, increased 3 and 

renter. Stakeholders indicated that access 

2 percentage points, respectively.

to mortgage financing due to insufficient 

income, bad credit, and limited savings for 

Homeownership rates were lower for Native 

a downpayment prevents Native Hawaiians 

Hawaiians than for residents of Hawaii 

from becoming homeowners. Stakeholders 

in all counties (exhibit 4.2). The disparity 

also noted that the main factors driving 

was largest in Hawaii County, where the 

delinquency among this population were 

homeownership rate for Native Hawaiians 

the loss of steady income, taking on 

was 10 percentage points lower than for 

subsequent consumer debt, and the high 

cost of living in Hawaii.

Exhibit 4.2. Homeownership Rates for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, by County, 2010

70

60

50

40

Native 

Hawaiian

Resident 

30

of Hawaii

20

Percent of households owner occupied

10

5

0

State of Hawaii

Hawaii County

Honolulu County

Kauai County

Maui County

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2010

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27

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Housing Structure Type

Within Hawaii, Native Hawaiians were more 

likely to live in single-family detached 

Households in Hawaii overall were more 

homes and less likely to live in townhouses 

likely to live in townhouses or multifamily 

or multifamily housing than were residents 

dwellings than in single-family detached 

of Hawaii (exhibit 4.3). During the 2006-

homes and other housing types (for 

to-2010 period, 71 percent of Native 

example, mobile homes, recreational 

Hawaiian households lived in single-family 

vehicles, boats) than were households in the 

detached homes compared with 63 

United States as a whole. During the 2006-

percent of residents of Hawaii households. 

to-2010 period, 36 percent of households 

Further, although 29 percent of Native 

in Hawaii lived in townhouses or multifamily 

Hawaiian households lived in townhouses or 

dwellings compared with only 25 percent 

multifamily housing, 37 percent of residents 

of households nationwide. Further, only 

of Hawaii households did so during the 

63 percent of households in Hawaii lived 

same period. Both groups lived in other 

in single-family detached homes and 

housing at equally low rates of 0.2 percent. 

less than 1 percent lived in other housing 

During the decade, the distribution of Native 

types compared with 69 and 6 percent, 

Hawaiian households and residents of Hawaii 

respectively, in the United States overall. 

households among these three housing 

types stayed about the same. 

Exhibit 4.3. Percent of Units by Housing Structure Type, Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010

80

70

Native Hawaiians

Residents of Hawaii

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Single family

Townhouse/multifamily

Mobile home, boat, RV, van, etc.

Notes: Native Hawaiian Population includes Native Hawaiian alone or multiracial.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006-2010 American Community Survey Selected Population Tables HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

28

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

At the county level, Honolulu County stood 

3 percentage points. Mikelsons et al. 

out from the other three counties. The share 

(1995) found that, in 1990, Native Hawaiian 

of Native Hawaiian households in single-

households residing in Hawaii were more 

family detached homes in Honolulu County 

likely to live in older, larger homes than were 

was the lowest (64 percent), and the share 

non-Native Hawaiians, especially in rural 

in townhouses or multifamily housing was 

areas, and especially among homeowners.20 

highest (36 percent). Although the share in 

In every county, the Native Hawaiian share 

single-family homes was still higher than the 

living in older homes exceeded the residents 

share for residents of Hawaii households in 

of Hawaii share, but usually the difference 

the county (56 percent), it was much lower 

was small (1 or 2 percentage points). Maui 

than the Native Hawaiian share in the other 

County was the exception, however; there, 

counties. In the remaining counties, more than 

the disparity was larger, at 6 percentage 

80 percent of Native Hawaiian households 

points. The housing stock in Honolulu 

were in single-family detached homes. This 

County appeared to be the oldest, with 

difference likely reflects the urbanization and 

the largest shares of Native Hawaiian and 

development in Honolulu County. 

residents of Hawaii households living in pre-

1960 units (23 and 20 percent, respectively). 

Housing Age and Size 

Compared with residents of Hawaii, Native 

The housing stock in Hawaii overall is newer 

Hawaiians were less likely to live in very small 

and smaller than the stock nationwide. 

units (two or fewer rooms) or large units (six 

During the 2006-to-2010 period, 81 percent 

or more rooms). During the 2006-to-2010 

of occupied housing units in Hawaii were 

period, about 8 percent of Native Hawaiian 

built after 1960 compared with 69 percent 

households lived in units with two or fewer 

of occupied housing units in the United 

rooms compared with about 10 percent 

States overall. During the same period, only 

among residents of Hawaii households. A 

35 percent of housing units in Hawaii had 

smaller share of Native Hawaiian households 

six or more rooms, but 52 percent of units in 

(33 percent) lived in units with six or more 

the United States did. Further, although only 

rooms than residents of Hawaii households 

4 percent of units in the United States had 

(36 percent). The remainder, the majority 

two or fewer rooms, 10 percent of units in 

of both groups, lived in three- to five-room 

Hawaii were that size. 

units (58 percent for Native Hawaiians and 

Within Hawaii, Native Hawaiian households 

54 percent for residents of Hawaii). This 

tended to live in older homes at slightly 

trend held in all four counties. During the 

higher rates than did residents of Hawaii 

decade, a large decline occurred in the share 

households (exhibit 4.4). During the 

of households in units with two or fewer 

2006-to-2010 period, 21 percent of Native 

rooms for both groups. The Native Hawaiian 

Hawaiian households lived in units built 

share declined 10 percentage points, and 

before 1960 compared with 19 percent 

the residents of Hawaii share declined 8 

of residents of Hawaii households. This 

percentage points. The shares in units with 

disparity grew during the decade: the share 

three to five rooms and units with six or more 

of Native Hawaiians in these units declined 

rooms each increased 5 percentage points for 

about 1 percentage point, but the share for 

Native Hawaiians and 4 percentage points for 

residents of Hawaii households dropped 

residents of Hawaii. 

20  Mikelsons et al. (1995), Section 4, “Housing Characteristics in 1990,” subsections “Age of Housing” and “Number of Units in Structure” and Table 4.2: Age of Housing Native Hawaiians and Non-Natives 1990.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Exhibit 4.4. Percent of Native Hawaiian Households Living in Units Built Before 1960, 2000 and 2006 to 2010

30

25

20

15

2000

2006–2010

10

Percent of households

5

0

State of Hawaii

Hawaii County

Honolulu County

Kauai County

Maui County

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000; U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates Housing Values and Rents

value at the state level for Native Hawaiian 

households was $463,800, nearly $75,000 

Housing prices in Hawaii are among the 

less than the median for all households. 

highest in the nation. Although the median 

Median gross rent for Native Hawaiian 

home value nationwide was $188,400 during 

households was $1,084, nearly $200 less 

the 2006-to-2010 period, the median home 

than the median for all households. Gross 

value in Hawaii was nearly three times that 

rent varied by a small margin at the county 

amount ($537,400). Further, the median 

level, from around $900 in Hawaii County to 

gross rent nationwide was $841, but, in 

$1,200 in Maui County. 

Hawaii, it was about 1.5 times that amount 

($1,260). Within the state, the median home 

The median home value for Native Hawaiian 

value for all households ranged considerably 

households varied more appreciably by 

by county. It was lowest in Hawaii County, 

county, with three counties having roughly 

at $361,400, and highest in Maui County, 

similar median home values and one (Hawaii 

at $614,600. Honolulu and Kauai Counties 

County) having much lower values (exhibit 

fell in between, with median values of 

4.5). For Native Hawaiian households, the 

$559,000 and $583,200, respectively, for 

median home value was highest in Honolulu 

all households. Median gross rent, however, 

County ($508,400), with Kauai and Maui 

varied much less: it was around $1,100 in 

Counties following close behind, at $499,100 

Hawaii County, $1,200 in Kauai County, and 

and $492,000, respectively. The median 

$1,300 in Honolulu and Maui Counties. 

home value for Native Hawaiian households 

in Hawaii County was $320,300, nearly 

The housing units occupied by Native 

$200,000 less than the median value in 

Hawaiian households tended to have lower 

Honolulu County. Stakeholders in Hawaii 

values and rents and exhibited a different 

confirmed this affordability landscape for 

pattern at the county level. During the 

Native Hawaiians, though they spoke about 

2006-to-2010 period, the median home 

individual islands rather than counties. They 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Exhibit 4.5. Median Home Value for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, by Owner-Occupied Units, 2006 to 2010

700,000

600,000

500,000

400,000

Native 

Hawaiian

300,000

Resident 

of Hawaii

Median home value ($)

200,000

100,000

0

State of Hawaii

Hawaii County

Honolulu County

Kauai County

Maui County

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates indicated that Native Hawaiians faced the 

American Community Survey (ACS) 

highest prices on Oahu, especially in the 

estimates, the research team was unable to 

Honolulu area. Housing was less expensive in 

analyze change over time in home values 

general on the neighbor islands, but limited 

and rents for this report.2121  Other sources 

existing housing stock and developable land 

report overall increases in home values and 

made finding housing on these islands more 

rents over time. For example, data from 

difficult. Among the neighbor islands, Maui 

the Economic Research Organization at 

was considered the most expensive. Hawaii 

the University of Hawaii, or UHERO, show a 

Island is split between the more affordable 

steady increase in the median sales price for 

eastern side of the island, which includes 

a single-family home in Hawaii from 2000 to 

Hilo and is considered more residential, 

2013, with a dip between 2007 and 2011 as a 

and the more expensive western side of 

result of the Great Recession (UHERO, 2013).

the island, which includes Kona and is more 

heavily influenced by tourism. Other lower-

Housing Problems and Needs: 

cost properties tended to be in more remote 

Framework

locations, such as on Molokai, that do not 

This report uses the framework for assessing 

have opportunities for employment or 

inadequate housing as presented in the 

services nearby.

Urban Institute’s 2014 report on American 

Given differences in the published data 

Indian and Alaska Native housing (Pettit et 

between census 2000 and 2006–2010 

al., 2014). Modified from the Urban Institute’s 

21  Published tables from the 2000 census reported median home values and contract rents only for owner- and renter-occupied specified units, but the tables for 2006-2010 ACS estimates report these values for all owner- and renter-occupied units. 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

31

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

previous reports on American Indian and 

define inadequate housing: quantity, quality, 

Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian housing 

and price. These qualities are described in 

(Kingsley et al., 1996; Mikelsons et al., 1995), 

the following subsections and summarized 

the framework outlines three qualities that 

in exhibit 4.6. 

Exhibit 4.6. Housing Problems and Needs Framework

Quantity

Market level: How well the number of housing units can accommodate the number of households that need housing, taking into account vacancies and projected growth.

Unit level: The number of people living in a given unit and the amount of space available–the size (in rooms) of the unit or the degree of overcrowding.

Overcrowded unit (HUD definition): More than one person per room. 

Severely overcrowded (HUD definition): More than 1.5 persons per room. 

Both measures of overcrowding are based on the total number of rooms in the unit considered suitable for living purposes (living rooms, dining rooms, kitchens, bedrooms, finished recreation rooms, enclosed porches suitable for year-round use, and lodgers’ rooms).

Quality

Facilities problems: Problems exist when (1) a unit lacks adequate plumbing, kitchen, electrical, and/or heating facilities; (2) such facilities do not function properly; or (3) the facilities constitute a safety hazard.

Condition problems: These problems occur when the unit was built inadequately (or has since deteriorated), so that it is structurally unsafe or offers inadequate protection from the elements. 

Design problems: These problems relate to the physical arrangement and characteristics of external features and interior spaces and whether they are deemed to be attractive and functionally convenient.

Price

Definition: The dollar amount of housing expenses in relation to household income.

Cost burdened (HUD definition): A household that pays more than 30 percent of its total income on housing.

Severely cost burdened (HUD definition): A household that spends more than 50 percent of its income on housing.

HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Quantity

3. Design problems relate to the physical 

arrangement and characteristics of 

At the market level, quantity is a measure of 

external features and interior spaces and 

how well the number of housing units can 

whether they are deemed to be attractive 

accommodate the number of households 

and functionally convenient. For several 

that need housing, taking into account 

reasons—including the fact that tastes 

vacancies and projected growth. On the unit 

vary—an objective rating scheme for this 

level, the measure used is the number of 

aspect has never been devised.

people living in a given unit compared with 

the size (in rooms) of the unit or the degree 

Census data are available for only part of 

of overcrowding.

the facilities problems.The census and ACS 

surveys ask whether a unit has adequate 

HUD categorizes a housing unit as 

kitchen and plumbing facilities.23 This 

overcrowded if it has more than one person 

section reports on how Native Hawaiian 

per room and as severely overcrowded if it 

households responded to these questions. 

has more than 1.5 persons per room. These 

Census data do not include information on 

measures are included in the U.S. Census 

condition or design problems. The survey 

Bureau’s ACS and American Housing Survey. 

of HHCA beneficiaries households on the 

The calculation is based on the total number 

State of Hawaii’s Department of Hawaiian 

of rooms in the unit considered suitable for 

Home Lands (DHHL) waiting list includes 

living purposes. 22Overcrowding and severe 

questions on these issues, which are 

overcrowding were included in the analyses 

covered in section 5.

for this report. 

Price 

Quality

This characteristic addresses the dollar 

This characteristic encompasses three types 

amount of housing expenses in relation to 

of quality problems. 

household income. Price becomes a problem 

1.  Facilities problems are the easiest to 

when the cost of housing is higher than a 

measure. Problems exist when (1) a 

household can reasonably afford, leaving 

unit lacks adequate plumbing, kitchen, 

households insufficient resources for food, 

electrical, and/or heating facilities; (2) 

clothing, and other necessities of life.

such facilities do not function properly; or 

HUD determines that a “cost burdened” 

(3) the facilities constitute a safety hazard.

household pays more than 30 percent of its 

2. Condition problems occur when the 

total income on housing. If a household spends 

unit was built inadequately (or has since 

more than 50 percent of its income on housing, 

deteriorated) so that it is structurally 

HUD designates it as “severely cost burdened.” 

unsafe or offers inadequate protection 

The U.S. Census Bureau collected data on the 

from the elements. These problems have 

proportion of households that fall into these 

been hard to rate in an objective manner.

two categories in both the 2000 decennial 

22  The Census Bureau considers the following rooms suitable for living purposes: living rooms, dining rooms, kitchens, bedrooms, finished recreation rooms, enclosed porches suitable for year-round use, and lodgers’ rooms. The Census Bureau excludes the following types of rooms: strip or Pullman kitchens, bathrooms, open porches, balconies, halls or foyers, half rooms, utility rooms, unfinished attics or base-ments, or other unfinished spaces used for storage (U.S. Census Bureau Glossary https://www.census.gov/glossary).

23  A unit has complete kitchen facilities when it has all of the following facilities: (1) cooking facilities, (2) a refrigerator, and (3) a sink with piped water (https://www.factfinder.census.gov/help/en/kitchen_facilities.htm). Complete plumbing facilities include (1) hot and cold piped water, (2) a flush toilet, and (3) a bathtub or shower. All three facilities must be located in the housing unit (https://www.factfinder.

census.gov/help/en/plumbing_facilities.htm).

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

33

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

census and the ACS. This section reports on 

in the very low-income and low-income 

these data for Native Hawai an households.24 

groups. The rates of overcrowding for Native 

Hawaiian households in Hawaii remained 

Housing Problems and Needs: 

similar in 2000. At 25 percent, they were only 

Quantity

3 percentage points lower than in 1990 and 

2 percentage points lower than in 1980; the 

Overcrowding was more common among 

residents of Hawaii household rate lingered at 

households in Hawaii than in all U.S. 

around 14 percent.25 

households. During the 2006-to-2010 period, 

households in Hawaii were three times more 

Although Native Hawai an rates remained 

likely to experience overcrowding and severe 

higher, by the 2006-to-2010 period, the 

overcrowding than were households in the 

prevalence of overcrowding among both 

United States: 3 percent of households in the 

groups dropped substantial y. By the 2006-to-

United States were overcrowded (with more 

2010 period, the overcrowding rate for Native 

than one person per room), but 9 percent 

Hawai ans dropped 10 percentage points to 

of households in Hawaii faced the same 

reach 15 percent. The rate for residents of 

condition. Of all U.S. households, about 1 

Hawaii households also dropped, but by a 

percent were severely overcrowded (more 

smaller margin (6 percentage points), to reach 

than 1.5 persons per room), but, in Hawaii, 

8 percent (exhibit 4.7). Not shown in the exhibit, 

3 percent of households were severely 

rates of severe overcrowding also decreased 

overcrowded. Although overcrowding rates in 

substantial y during the 2000-to-2010 decade. 

Hawaii remained relatively high, they dropped 

In 2000, 12 percent of Native Hawai an 

by more percentage points than rates in the 

households were severely overcrowded as were 

United States overall. Between 2000 and 

7 percent of residents of Hawaii households. 

the 2006-to-2010 period, overcrowding in 

By the 2006-to-2010 period, those shares had 

Hawaii declined 6 percentage points, from 15 

dropped to 5 and 3 percent, respectively.

to 9 percent of households, but, during the 

same period, the U.S. rate dropped only 3 

The highest incidence of overcrowding in 

percentage points, from 6 to 3 percent. 

Native Hawaiian households by county was 

in Maui County (20 percent), followed by 

Within Hawaii, overcrowding was consistently 

Kauai (17 percent), Honolulu (15 percent), 

more common among Native Hawaiian 

and Hawaii (13 percent) Counties. Severe 

households than residents of Hawaii 

overcrowding was 6 percent in Kauai County 

households. Mikelsons et al. (1995) found that 

and 5 percent in the other counties. During 

28 percent of Native Hawaiian households 

the decade, overcrowding rates declined in all 

experienced overcrowding in 1990, a slight 

four counties. Of the counties, Native Hawaiian 

increase from 27 percent in 1980. This rate 

households in Honolulu County experienced 

was more than twice the rate of overcrowding 

the least severe disparities in overcrowding 

for residents of Hawaii households, which was 

and severe overcrowding, with rates 1.9 and 1.7 

13 percent in 1990. Rates of overcrowding for 

times, respectively, that of residents of Hawaii 

Native Hawaiian households were consistently 

households. Native Hawaiian households in 

high across geographic settings and highest 

24  Mikelsons et al. (1995) included breakdowns of these housing issues on several dimensions: urban versus rural; low-income (80 percent of the Area Median Income [AMI]), very low-income (30 percent of the AMI), and non-low-income households; and by the existence of multiple problems. Due to differing data sources, this study does not use these breakdowns but, instead, investigates the incidence of housing problems by racial category (Native Hawaiian and resident of Hawaii) and county. 

25  Because the race question was asked differently on the 1980 and 1990 decennial censuses than it was in the 2000 census (in 2000 respondents could select multiple races), these differences should be interpreted with caution. 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

34

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Exhibit 4.7. Percent of Households That Were Overcrowded, by Native Hawaiian Identification, 1980 to 2006 to 2010

30

28

28

25

25

20

15

15

14

13

10

Percent of households

8

5

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawaii

0

1980

1990

2000

2006–2010

Sources: Data for 1980 and 1990 come from Mikelsons et al. (1995); 2000 data come from the U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000; 2006-2010 data come from the U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables

Kauai County had the most severe disparities, 

facilities, the proportion of the population with 

with overcrowding being 2.3 times the rate 

inadequate facilities was higher than in the 

of overcrowding for residents of Hawaii and 

United States as a whole, and the proportion 

severe overcrowding being 2.4 times the rate 

of Native Hawaiian households with facilities 

for residents of Hawaii. 

deficiencies was higher than for residents of 

Hawaii households. 

According to stakeholders, overcrowding 

has several negative consequences. First, 

A larger share of housing units in Hawaii lacks 

it contributes to housing unit deterioration, 

complete kitchen and plumbing facilities than 

because the larger number of occupants 

in the United States overall. During the 2006-

leads to greater wear and tear on the 

to-2010 period, 0.8 percent of households 

unit. Second, it can create conflict among 

in Hawaii lacked complete plumbing 

neighbors over parking, noise, and other 

facilities compared with 0.5 percent of units 

issues. Stakeholders noted that homes were 

nationwide. Further, 1.5 percent of households 

not built with sufficient parking for all the cars 

in Hawaii lacked complete kitchen facilities, 

associated with an overcrowded unit, which 

nearly twice the national rate (0.8 percent). 

creates tension with neighbors regarding 

available parking. 

Within Hawaii, facilities problems were more 

prevalent among Native Hawaiian households 

Housing Problems and Needs: 

than among residents of Hawaii households. 

Quality

During the 2006-to-2010 period, 1.1 percent of 

Native Hawaiians lacked complete plumbing 

Although few households in Hawaii lack 

facilities compared with 0.7 percent among 

complete plumbing, kitchen, or telephone 

residents of Hawaii households. This disparity 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

35

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

persisted in Hawaii County, where 3 percent 

Housing Problems and Needs: Price

of Native Hawaiian households lacked 

plumbing facilities, almost twice the rate 

Housing affordability was a problem for 

of residents of Hawaii households, and in 

people across Hawaii. During the 2006-to-

Maui County, where the rate was 1.2 percent 

2010 period, 42 percent of all households 

for Native Hawaiian households and 0.8 

in Hawaii were cost burdened, a rate 6 

percent for residents of Hawaii households. 

percentage points higher than the national 

In Honolulu and Kauai Counties, the rates 

rate of 36 percent. Within Hawaii, Native 

for Native Hawaiians and residents of Hawaii 

Hawaiian households had slightly lower rates 

were equivalent. 

of cost burden (40 percent) than did the 

residents of Hawaii households (42 percent), 

The rate for incomplete kitchen facilities was 

but both were still more than the national 

slightly higher for Native Hawaiian households 

rate. Lower average home values and rents 

(1.9 percent) than for residents of Hawaii 

paid and larger household size for Native 

households (1.5 percent). This trend held in 

Hawaiians may partially explain this seemingly 

Maui County, where the Native Hawaiian rate 

counterintuitive rate. All the stakeholders 

was 2.9 percent and the residents of Hawaii 

interviewed for this study agreed that a lack 

rate was 1.5 percent, and in Hawaii County, 

of affordable housing is a major housing-

where the Native Hawaiian rate was 2.4 

related challenge in Hawaii and that Native 

percent and the residents of Hawaii rate was 

Hawaiians experience disproportionate 

1.7 percent. In Honolulu and Kauai Counties, 

burden due to lower average incomes 

the Native Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii 

and limited access to capital. Stakeholder 

rates were about equal, at about 1.4 and 2.5 

respondents from DHHL, financial institutions, 

percent, respectively. 

and housing support organizations estimated 

that Native Hawaiians typically spend 40 to 

The stakeholder interviews also identified 

60 percent of their income on housing and 

physical problems of housing occupied by 

housing-related costs and may require three 

Native Hawaiians. Stakeholders reported 

or more incomes to afford the cost of the 

that the quality of homes varied both on and 

median home purchase or rental. 

off the Hawaiian home lands, depending on 

age, quality of original construction, owner 

Although a significant share of Native 

maintenance, and the number of occupants. 

Hawaiian households across Hawaii 

Older homes across Hawaii, in many cases, 

experienced a housing cost burden, the 

have deteriorated due to poor construction or 

proportion varied by county. Native Hawaiian 

lack of maintenance. Older houses with wood 

households in Honolulu and Maui Counties 

and single-wall construction may have wood 

had the highest rates of cost burden, each 

rot or termite damage because the wood was 

at approximately 41 percent; in addition, they 

not regularly painted and termite treatments 

experienced an approximately 34-percent 

were not applied properly. Stakeholders 

rate for severe cost burden. Native Hawaiian 

also noted that foundations can crack due 

households in Kauai County were the 

to ground shifting and may not be repaired. 

least likely to experience cost burden and 

Further, the climate causes a significant need 

severe cost burden, at 33 and 27 percent, 

for weatherization. The area’s moisture, salt 

respectively. This county variation is consistent 

air, and wind can cause materials to wear, rot, 

with the findings of Mikelsons et al. (1995), 

or rust prematurely; support the growth of 

which identified higher rates of affordability 

mold and mildew; and cause other problems. 

problems in urban areas than in rural areas. 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

36

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Differences in cost burden for Native 

expenses, (2) working multiple jobs, and (3) 

Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii households 

living far from their place of employment. 

also varied by county. In Hawaii and Honolulu 

Counties, the rates of cost burden and 

Overcrowding or extended or multifamily 

severe cost burden for Native Hawaiian and 

living is one potential strategy Native 

residents of Hawaii households hovered 

Hawaiians used to cope with housing 

within a percentage point of each other. In 

affordability issues, especially in areas with 

Maui and Kauai Counties, rates were higher 

a shortage of affordable housing. Speaking 

in residents of Hawaii households. In Maui, 

specifically about Maui Island, one informant 

the proportion of both cost-burdened and 

estimated that it takes income from about 

severely cost-burdened residents of Hawaii 

three to four jobs to afford rent or a house 

households was 4 percentage points higher 

payment. This practice leads to as many as 

than for Native Hawaiian households. Kauai 

four or five families living within one unit. 

County had the largest gap: the proportion of 

Overcrowding declined notably during the 

residents of Hawaii households with housing 

2000-to-2010 decade, but cost burden 

cost burden was 9 percentage points higher 

among Native Hawaiian households remained 

than for Native Hawaiian households, and 

relatively prevalent, with two-fifths of 

the proportion with severe cost burden was 

households paying 30 percent or more of 

7 percentage points higher than for Native 

their income on housing and one-third of that 

Hawaiian households.

group paying 50 percent or more. 

Although differences in data reporting limit 

Further, most stakeholders seemed conflicted 

researchers’ ability to draw conclusions 

about calling extended or multifamily living 

about changes over time, the analysis for 

“overcrowding” or a problem, because 

this report and findings from Mikelsons et 

these situations are considered normal and 

al. (1995) suggest that cost burden among 

culturally acceptable in addition to being 

Native Hawaiian households in Hawaii has 

economically practical. “Ohana living” is a 

increased since the 1980s.26 Mikelsons et al. 

local concept meaning living in the extended 

(1995) found 25 percent of Native Hawaiian 

family style. Ohana, or extended family, is a 

households were cost burdened in 1980, and 

core social unit in Hawaii. The ohana concept 

28 percent were cost burdened in 1990. In 

is shaped by ideas about cooperation, 

2000, the rate of cost burden among Native 

mutual support, and shared responsibility 

Hawaiian households reached 36 percent 

for the welfare of families and communities 

and increased again to 40 percent during the 

(Handy and Pukui, 1950; Kana’iaupuni, 2004; 

2006-to-2010 period. 

McGregor et al., 2003; Stern, Yuen, and 

Hartsock, 2004). The cultural importance of 

Strategies To Deal With 

the ohana concept and the sense of family 

Affordability Challenges 

obligation attached to it encourage Native 

Hawaiians to place a high value on taking 

Stakeholders described three main ways 

in relatives who are in need. One informant 

that Native Hawaiians cope with housing 

said, “Part of our culture is taking in family 

affordability challenges: (1) overcrowding or 

to avoid homelessness.” Overcrowding is a 

extended or multifamily living to pool 

phenomenon that continues over generations, 

26  The ability to draw exact conclusions is limited by two factors. First, as mentioned previously, starting with the 2000 census, respondents could select more than one race. Because of this change, the race definitions between the 1980 and 1990 censuses differ from those in the 2000 and 2010 censuses and the ACS. Second, cost burden in 2000 was calculated only for specified units, but in the 2006–2010 

ACS it was calculated for all units.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

37

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

so some people are used to it and do not 

employment challenges in Hawaii. In general, 

see it as a problem. A few informants, 

stakeholders thought that this strategy 

however, noted that multifamily or extended 

was not widely used, especially after the 

households are becoming less popular as 

tourism industry rebounded from the Great 

times are changing, and it might not be 

Recession. A few people thought it was, 

preferred if housing were more affordable.

however. One homesteader said, “We are 

born and live here and expect to die here, 

To afford housing, rather than bringing more 

and yet our children are leaving because they 

people into the household, adults in some 

can’t afford to live here. That is sacrilegious 

households may choose to work more jobs. 

almost to us, driving out our culture. We have 

One key informant said that it is impossible 

lands that aren’t enough to house us.”

to afford housing unless a household is 

willing to “team up with others or take on 

Homelessness

additional jobs.” Stakeholders noted that 

these households may be at particular risk 

Because of their lower incomes, higher 

of losing housing if they encounter a sudden 

poverty rates, and challenges obtaining 

loss of income because of job loss or other 

and maintaining affordable housing, Native 

unexpected financial burden. 

Hawaiians may be at particular risk for 

homelessness. Research shows that the 

Another method of coping is to live in more 

single biggest individual-level predictor of 

affordable areas farther from employment. 

homelessness is having an extremely low 

This strategy came up often in conversations 

income (Burt, 2001), and the key systemic 

about Hawaii Island. Substantial numbers of 

driver of homelessness is the availability 

hospitality and tourism workers employed 

or the lack of affordable housing 

in and around Kona lived somewhere on 

(Cunningham, 2009). 

the eastern side of the island where housing 

is more affordable. A typical commute 

Both the stakeholder interviews and 

for people in this situation could involve a 

administrative data suggest that Native 

30-minute or longer bus ride to Hilo, where 

Hawaiians are overrepresented among the 

they catch another bus to the hotels in 

homeless population. All the stakeholders 

Kona, with one-way commutes of more 

with whom the research team discussed 

than 2 hours. Before the recent rebuilding 

homelessness agreed that homelessness 

of the “saddle road” across the middle of 

is a significant problem in Hawaii and 

the island from Hilo to just north of Kona, 

indicated that Native Hawaiians are 

commutes were even longer and more 

disproportionately represented in the state’s 

dangerous because the old road had many 

homeless population. 

narrow stretches with sharp curves, blind 

Administrative data substantiate this 

hills, and a history of poor maintenance that 

impression. Although data are not available for 

led to deterioration. Employers in the Kona 

only Native Hawaiians, HUD’s 2015 Homeless 

region have begun to offer bus service for 

Populations and Subpopulations reports 

employees as a result of a large workforce 

(HUD, 2015) show that 2,978, or 39 percent, of 

residing in the Hilo area. 

the state’s 7,620 homeless individuals identify 

Beyond these three core coping strategies, 

as Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 

a few informants noted that some Native 

compared with only about 10 percent in the 

Hawaiians are migrating to the mainland 

state as a whole, according to 2014 ACS 1-year 

as a strategy for dealing with housing and 

data (exhibit 4.8).

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

38

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Exhibit 4.8. Size of the Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Homeless Population, 2015

Households

Individuals

Total Number

Total Number

Number NH/OPI 

Percent NH/OPI

Honolulu County

2,956

4,903

2,137

43.6

Rest of Hawai

1,897

2,717

841

31.0

State Total

4,853

7,620

2,978

39.1

COC = Continuum of Care. NH = Native Hawaiian. OPI = Other Pacific Islander.

Sources: Homelessness data are from CoC Homeless Populations and Subpopulations Reports for Honolulu City and County and Hawaii Balance of State CoCs; https://www.hudexchange.info/resource/reportmanagement/published/CoC_PopSub_State_HI_2015.pdf.

Stakeholders described the state’s homeless 

and eastern sides of the island, where Native 

population as divided into two groups. The 

Hawaiians make up a larger share of the 

first group is largely composed of chronically 

population. On Hawaii Island, the chronically 

homeless single adults.27 These individuals 

homeless were concentrated around Kona, 

tend to be older males (estimated average 

and the economically disadvantaged Native 

age of 62) with substance use or mental 

Hawaiian homeless tended to live on the 

health issues and are not typically Native 

eastern side of the island. 

Hawaiian. The second category includes 

adults and families who are working but 

Several stakeholders reported that people 

are economically disadvantaged and 

often do not want to go to shelters because 

homeless; one informant from a stakeholder 

of the rules governing them, such as rules 

organization estimated that most of this 

against pets or alcohol and drug-screening 

group is Native Hawaiian. These homeless 

protocols. Some shelters are also unappealing 

families and individuals typically double 

because they separate men and women 

up with family, live in cars or garages, or 

or offer limited privacy. One informant 

live in tents or temporary shelters in rural 

suggested these kinds of rules may be not 

areas. A few informants also noted that 

be acceptable to families, which might help 

some homeless Native Hawaiians live in lava 

explain why shelters on Oahu often are not 

tubes—cave-like tunnels created by volcanic 

full, except for the family shelter, which does 

activity—around the island. 

not have these restrictions. Families may 

be opting to make other arrangements for 

These two groups tended to live in different 

shelter in order to stay together. Although 

areas of the state. On the island of Oahu, 

the state has a plan to end and prevent 

the chronically homeless were more likely to 

homelessness, Native Hawaiians may not be 

live in the Honolulu and Waikiki areas. The 

the immediate beneficiaries of investment 

economically disadvantaged Native Hawaiian 

due to their lower level of need relative to the 

homeless were concentrated on the western 

chronically homeless population. 

27  HUD defines chronically homeless as “(1) A ‘homeless individual with a disability,’ as defined in the Act, who: • Lives in a place not meant for human habitation, a safe haven, or in an emergency shelter; and • Has been homeless (as described above) continuously for at least 12 months or on at least 4 separate occasions in the last 3 years where the combined occasions must total at least 12 months; (2) An individual who has been residing in an institutional care facility for fewer than 90 days and met all of the criteria in paragraph (1) of this definition, before entering that facility; or (3) A family with an adult head of household (or if there is no adult in the family, a minor head of household) who meets all of the criteria in paragraphs (1) or (2) of this definition, including a family whose composition has fluctuated while the head of household has been homeless,” (24 CFR Parts 91 and 578). Federal Register 80 [223]. https://www.hudexchange.info/

resources/documents/Defining-Chronically-Homeless-Final-Rule.pdf

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

39

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Section 5. Circumstances 

° Beyond these characteristics, HHCA 

beneficiary households on the waiting 

of Native Hawaiians 

list appeared to be much more 

disadvantaged than households on 

the sampled Hawaiian home lands and 

Residing in Hawaiian 

Native Hawaiian residents of Hawaii 

households overall. HHCA beneficiary 

Home Lands and on the 

households on the waiting list had 

the lowest median income of all four 

Hawaiian Home Lands 

groups by a substantial margin, and 

they received public cash assistance 

Waiting List

at more than twice the rate of the 

other groups. By contrast, households 

on the sampled Hawaiian home lands 

reported a higher median income 

Sections 2 through 4 of this report describe 

than Native Hawaiian and residents of 

population growth and distribution, social and 

Hawaii households at the state level. 

economic conditions and trends, and housing 

conditions and needs for all of Hawaii, using 

•  HHCA beneficiary households on the 

census data to compare Native Hawaiians 

waiting list also faced more significant 

residing in the state with other residents of 

housing challenges across all dimensions 

Hawaii. This section addresses the same topics, 

than did the other groups. 

focusing on two groups of Native Hawaiian 

households: those households residing on the 

° Although overcrowding is a 

bigger problem on the Hawaiian 

Hawaiian home lands and those households on 

home lands than in the state, in 

the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act (HHCA) 

general, overcrowding and severe 

beneficiary waiting list who are waiting for a 

overcrowding were even more 

lot on the Hawaiian home lands.28 

prevalent among households on the 

Key Findings

waiting list. For example, nearly 40 

percent of households on the waiting 

Key findings from this section include—

list were overcrowded compared with 

only 19 percent of households on 

•  Households on the 20 sampled Hawaiian 

sampled Hawaiian home lands. 

home lands were more similar to HHCA 

beneficiary households on the waiting 

° Facilities problems, which are about 

list in terms of mobility, household size, 

equal y uncommon on the Hawai an 

and household composition than to 

home lands as in the state overal , 

Native Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii 

affected HHCA beneficiary households 

households at the state level. HHCA 

on the waiting list at high rates. For 

beneficiary households on the waiting list 

example, 10 percent of HHCA beneficiary 

and households on the sampled Hawaiian 

households on the waiting list lacked 

home lands were less mobile, had larger 

complete plumbing compared with 1 

household sizes, and had lower rates of 

percent for all other groups. 

single parent-headed households. 

28  Note that these two groups are not mutually exclusive, because some individuals who reside on the Hawaiian home lands are also applicants on the waiting list. 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

40

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

° HHCA beneficiary households on the 

Framing and Sources of Information 

waiting list experienced cost burden 

at higher rates than Native Hawaiian 

This report relies on three sources of data 

and residents of Hawaii households 

to describe the population and housing 

in the state, but households living on 

conditions of the people living on the 

the Hawaiian home lands experienced 

Hawaiian home lands: (1) the U.S. decennial 

lower rates of cost burden than 

census for 2000 and the 2006–2010 

HHCA beneficiary households on the 

American Community Survey (ACS) data 

waiting list. 

for the 20 most populous residential 

homesteads;29 (2) DHHL surveys of its 

° Based on the household survey, few 

lessees, the most recent of which were 

HHCA beneficiary households on the 

completed in 2008 and 2014; and (3) 

waiting list were currently receiving 

semistructured discussions conducted in 

a housing subsidy, and only a small 

July 2014 with a range of stakeholders, 

share had ever received one. 

including leadership and members of 

homestead associations, officials and staff 

The Hawaiian Home Lands 

of DHHL, and stakeholders at organizations 

Population

that have direct experience working with the 

The existence of the Hawaiian home lands 

state’s Native Hawaiian population.30 This last 

is a distinctive feature of the housing 

group included the State of Hawaii Office 

situation for members of the Native 

of Hawaiian Affairs, housing assistance 

Hawaiian community. The Hawaiian Home 

providers, financial institutions, advocacy 

Lands program is managed by the State 

groups, and faith-based and other social 

of Hawaii’s Department of Hawaiian 

service organizations.

Home Lands (DHHL) with oversight of the 

Each of the three data sources has its 

state’s management provided by the U.S. 

limitations, and no single source provides 

Department of the Interior. The program, 

the complete picture of Native Hawaiians 

established in 1921 for homesteading by 

residing on the Hawaiian home lands. 

Native Hawaiians, is in place to support 

Census data report on all residents of the 

the self-sufficiency and well-being of the 

Hawaiian home lands, including those who 

Native Hawaiian people. These public trust 

are not Native Hawaiian (about 13 percent 

lands are leased to eligible Native Hawaiian 

of the Hawaiian home lands population). 

community members for residential, 

The lessee survey is a self-administered 

agricultural, and pastoral purposes in 

mail survey that DHHL sends to all lessees; 

homestead communities. In 2014, Hawaii had 

the 2014 survey obtained a 22-percent 

56 occupied homestead communities with 

response rate from those currently 

9,838 leases (DHHL, 2014b) and, in 2010, 

residing on the Hawaiian home lands.31 The 

according to the 2010 census, there were 

stakeholder interviews provided qualitative 

30,858 residents on the home lands. 

information from individuals 

29  These 20 home lands were the largest sample of homestead communities with complete data on the variables of interest for this report. A list of these Hawaiian home lands communities with their populations is provided in appendix A.

30  Homestead associations are beneficiary-controlled organizations that represent and serve the interests of their respective homestead community and have as a stated purpose the representation of and provision of services to their homestead community.

31  These respondents were traditional lessees (that is, those who have a lease on the Hawaiian home lands and reside on the home lands). 

Undivided interest lessees were surveyed separately (19-percent response rate) because they had received leases but had not yet moved into a Hawaiian home lands community.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List familiar with housing issues in Hawaii and, 

number of older homestead communities 

in particular, Native Hawaiians and housing 

or an older age at lease inception. 

options available on the Hawaiian home 

lands. Stakeholders varied in their areas 

Household Sizes and Types

of expertise, and interviews were tailored 

Households on the Hawaiian home lands 

accordingly. Further details about the data 

tend to be larger than both Native Hawaiian 

sources and limitations are provided in 

and other households at the state level. The 

appendix C.

average household size in the Hawaiian home 

Social and Economic Conditions

lands sample was 4.3 compared with 4.1 in 

the Native Hawaiian population and 2.7 for 

Population

residents of Hawaii households. Households 

in the sampled Hawaiian home lands were 

The sample of the 20 most populous 

also more likely than Native Hawaiians 

residential Hawaiian homestead 

to have large families with five or more 

communities used in the analysis, which had 

people. In 2010, 40 percent of households 

a total population of 27,596, made up 89 

in the sampled Hawaiian home lands were 

percent of the total Hawaiian home lands 

categorized as large compared with 26 

population in 2010. Of this population, 87 

percent of Native Hawaiian households 

percent were Native Hawaiian alone or 

statewide and 16 percent of all households 

multiracial. The remaining residents were 

in Hawaii. These findings are similar to those 

largely White alone (4 percent) or Asian 

reported by Mikelsons et al. (1995).

alone (4 percent). The proportions of Blacks, 

American Indians and Alaska Natives, Other 

On the Hawaiian home lands, married 

Pacific Islanders, and people of multiple 

couples without children households and 

races (not including Native Hawaiian) ranged 

other family households (defined by the U.S. 

from 0.1 to 1 percent. 

Census Bureau as male- or female-headed 

family households without children under 

Age

age 18) are more common, and nonfamily 

households (those that do not include one 

As noted in section 3, the Native Hawaiian 

or more persons related by birth, marriage, 

population tended to be younger than 

or adoption) and single parent-headed 

the residents of Hawaii population, with 

households are less common compared 

a smaller proportion of the population 

with the Native Hawaiian population in the 

being age 65 and older and a larger share 

state. In 2010, 32 percent of households 

being under age 20. The residents of the 

in the sampled Hawaiian home lands were 

sampled Hawaiian home lands skewed 

married couples without children and 22 

older. Only 7 percent of Hawaii’s Native 

percent were other family households. By 

Hawaiian population was age 65 and older 

contrast, only 25 percent of Native Hawaiian 

in 2010, but the share for the Hawaiian 

households were married couples without 

home lands residents sample was 10 

children and only 15 percent were other 

percent. Further, although 39 percent of 

family types (exhibit 5.1). The share of single-

the state’s Native Hawaiian population 

parent households on the Hawaiian home 

overall was under age 20, only 33 percent 

lands (9 percent) was much lower than the 

of the total population on the Hawaiian 

overall Native Hawaiian share in the state 

home lands was in that age group. These 

(16 percent). Nonfamily households are also 

differences could be due in part to the 

less common on the Hawaiian home lands. 

aging of the lessees in a substantial 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Exhibit 5.1. Household Composition in Hawaiian Home Lands Compared With All Native Hawaiian Households in the State of Hawaii, 2010

35

All households in sampled home lands

30

All Native Hawaiian households in Hawaii

25

20

15

Percent of households

10

5

0

Married with children under 18

Single parent with children under 18

Married without children

Other

Nonfamily households

Note: Of home lands residents, 87 percent are Native Hawaiian.

Household category

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2010. 

In 2010, only 13 percent of households in 

than did the Native Hawaiian and 

the sampled Hawaiian home lands were 

residents of Hawaii populations at the 

nonfamily compared with 23 percent among 

state level. In the sampled Hawaiian 

the state’s Native Hawaiian households.

home lands, 8 percent of the population 

had at least a bachelor’s degree 

Mikelsons et al. (1995) found that Native 

compared with 15 percent for Native 

Hawaiian households on the sampled 

Hawaiians and 32 percent of residents 

Hawaiian home lands were much more likely 

of Hawaii during the 2006-to-2010 

than Native Hawaiian households in the 

period. Further, Hawaiian home lands 

state to include subfamilies (28 compared 

residents were slightly less likely to have 

with 17 percent), and this pattern continues 

completed high school. During the 2006-

today. In 2010, 27 percent of households 

to-2010 period, 12 percent of Hawaiian 

on the homelands included relatives 

home lands residents did not have a high 

beyond immediate family compared with 18 

school diploma or general educational 

percent among the state’s Native Hawaiian 

development, or GED, compared 

households and 11 percent among residents 

with 10 percent of Native Hawaiians 

of Hawaii households.

and residents of Hawaii. Mikelsons et 

Educational Attainment

al. (1995) also found lower levels of 

educational attainment on the Hawaiian 

The Hawaiian home lands population had 

home lands, suggesting that this trend 

lower levels of educational attainment 

has persisted throughout the decades. 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Employment

Income and Poverty

Hawaiian home lands residents tended to 

During the 2006-to-2010 period, the median 

have lower labor force participation and 

incomes for the 20 Hawaiian home lands 

employment and higher unemployment 

in the sample ranged widely, from $24,583 

rates compared with statewide averages 

to $103,571. Among residents of the 20 

for Native Hawaiians and residents of 

sampled home lands, the median income 

Hawaii. During the 2006-to-2010 period, 

was $66,901 and the average income was 

65 percent of Hawaiian residents age 16 

$76,387. By comparison, the median income 

and older on the sampled home lands were 

was $62,852 for Native Hawaiian households 

in the labor force, 4 percentage points 

in Hawaii and $66,420 for all of Hawaii. 

lower than the rate for the state’s Native 

Hawaiian population (69 percent) and 2 

Hawaiian home lands residents had much 

percentage points lower than residents of 

lower poverty rates than did Native Hawaiian 

Hawaii (67 percent) (exhibit 5.2). Hawaiian 

and residents of Hawaii households in 

home lands residents were also less likely 

the state (exhibit 5.3). About 6 percent of 

to be employed: 58 percent of those living 

residents in the sampled Hawaiian home 

on the sampled Hawaiian home lands were 

lands were in poverty during the 2006-to-

employed compared with 62 percent of 

2010 period compared with 12 percent of 

all Native Hawaiians and 59 percent of 

Native Hawaiians and 9 percent of residents 

residents of Hawaii. These lower levels of 

of Hawaii. In the sampled Hawaiian home 

labor force participation and employment 

lands, the poverty rate was highest (7 

may reflect the fact that the home lands 

percent) among adults ages 18 to 64, and 

residents of the sampled Hawaiian home 

the rates for children (under age 18) and 

lands were older than Hawaii’s Native 

seniors (age 65 and older) were lower, at 

Hawaiian population overall. Further, 

about 5 percent. The Hawaiian home lands 

residents of the sampled Hawaiian home 

child poverty rate stands in stark contrast 

lands had a slightly higher unemployment 

to the 15 percent child poverty rate in the 

rate (10 percent) than did Native Hawaiians 

statewide Native Hawaiian population. It is 

statewide (9 percent) and residents of 

possible that the analysis presented here 

Hawaii (5 percent). This finding is consistent 

overestimated incomes and underestimated 

with findings from Mikelsons et al. (1995).

poverty. It excluded 1,694 residents in 

smaller and agricultural homesteads. These 

Exhibit 5.2. Labor Force Characteristics for the State of Hawaii by Native Hawaiian Identification and for the Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands, 2006 to 2010

Residents of Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands 

Native Hawaiians 

Residents of Hawai

Percent of population age 16 and older

In labor force

64.8

68.7

66.5

In civilian labor force

64.5

68.1

62.1

Unemployed

10.4

9.1

4.8

Employed 

57.7

57.7

59.1

In military

0.3

0.3

4.4

Note: Hawaiian home lands include only the 20 largest residential Hawaiian home lands communities. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population table HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Exhibit 5.3. Poverty Rates by Age Group for the Total Population in Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands and the Native Hawaiian Population in the State of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010

16

14

Total population in sampled home lands

12

All Native Hawaiians in Hawaii

10

8

6

4

2

Percent of the population for whom poverty status is determined

0

Total

Less than 18

18 to 64

65 and Older

Age group

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates homesteads may be in poorer, more rural 

assistance. Both of these rates were lower 

areas than the homesteads in the sample. 

among residents of Hawaii households: only 

In addition, it may be that the excluded 

6 percent of residents of Hawaii households 

homesteads have a higher proportion of 

received SNAP, and 3 percent received 

longer-term lessees, who tend to be more 

public cash assistance. 

financially disadvantaged (DHHL, 2008).

Housing Conditions: Problems and 

Rates of receipt for means-tested assistance 

Needs

programs for Hawaiian home lands residents 

were about the same as those for Native 

This subsection describes housing stock on 

Hawaiians. During the 2006-to-2010 period, 

the Hawaiian home lands, housing tenure, 

for example, 16 percent of sampled Hawaiian 

housing structure and type, and home 

home lands residents and 15 percent of 

values and includes findings on housing 

Native Hawaiians received benefits from the 

problems and needs specific to the Hawaiian 

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program 

home lands. In assessing housing on the 

(SNAP). Further, about 7 percent of both 

Hawaiian home lands, this subsection uses 

sampled Hawaiian home lands and Native 

the same framework presented in section 

Hawaiian households received public cash 

4 to assess housing: quantity, quality, and 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List price. Census data for the sample of 20 

3. Vacant lot awards are for lots without 

Hawaiian home lands are supplemented with 

homes. Lessees can select their own 

descriptions and insights gleaned from the 

home design to be built by a contractor or 

stakeholder interviews and existing literature 

as an owner-builder. DHHL also provides 

on the Hawaiian home lands.

infrastructure development for these 

awards, so vacant lots are generally 

Housing Characteristics and Housing 

awarded in a ready-to-build state.

Stock

4. Self-help/sweat equity awards depend 

In 2013, Hawaii had 54 occupied homestead 

on volunteer labor provided by the 

communities with 9,850 leases established 

lessees, friends, and family members or 

on the trust lands. About 85 percent of 

other skilled and unskilled volunteers. 

leases provided to date are for residential 

DHHL has cooperative partnerships with 

purposes (DHHL, 2014b). According to the 

several nonprofit and governmental 

ACS, during the 2006-to-2010 period, the 

organizations, such as Habitat for 

20 sampled Hawaiian home lands had 6,068 

Humanity, to facilitate these awards.

housing units.3232 

Tenure

DHHL offers four basic types of residential 

lease awards: (1) turnkey awards, (2) 

Most DHHL homes on the Hawaiian home 

undivided interest awards, (3) vacant lot 

lands are intended for ownership. DHHL 

awards, and (4) self-help/sweat equity awards. 

traditionally has not offered rental properties 

because rentals do not take people off the 

1.  Turnkey awards are lots with prebuilt 

waiting list for a lease, and DHHL’s mission 

single-family homes. Lessees are able to 

is focused on the delivery of land leases to 

choose the model of the home to be built. 

HHCA beneficiaries. This policy is reflected 

Upon approval for a loan, construction 

in the homeownership rate. During the 

begins. A homebuilder/developer 

2006-to-2010 period, the homeownership 

competitively selected by DHHL manages 

rate among households in the sampled 

the construction of the home from start 

Hawaiian home lands was 90 percent 

to finish. DHHL provides offsite and onsite 

compared with 55 percent among the state’s 

infrastructure development to get the lots 

Native Hawaiian households and 58 percent 

to a ready-to-build state. 

among residents of Hawaii households. 

2. Undivided interest awards are for 

Vacancy

unspecified lots in development projects 

or subdivisions that are still in the 

The Hawaiian home lands had a much lower 

planning phases. This program provides 

vacancy rate than did the state. Only 3 

lessees time to get their finances in order 

percent of the units on the Hawaiian home 

and qualify for a mortgage while DHHL 

lands were vacant compared with the state’s 

develops the project. DHHL provides 

overall vacancy rate of 12 percent. The low 

assistance to lessees with financial literacy 

vacancy rate was consistent with the high 

training, counseling, and referrals to debt 

demand for Hawaiian home lands leases 

reduction and consolidation and credit 

(as evidenced by the waiting list) and the 

repair services. 

control of development by DHHL. 

32  Information on the number of units may not match DHHL’s statistics. For consistency throughout this subsection, 2006–2010 ACS estimates of the number of units are used. 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Development on the Hawaiian home lands is 

or materials.  One stakeholder noted that, 

not speculative but, instead, is planned with 

until about 20 years ago, a permit was 

Hawaiian home lands applicants in mind. 

not required for construction on Hawaiian 

home lands. DHHL now requires licensed 

Housing Type, Age, and Size

contractors and building to standard local 

According to the ACS, during the 2006-to-

codes in construction projects. 

2010 period, 96 percent of occupied housing 

Turnkey homes on the Hawaiian home lands 

units on the Hawaiian home lands were 

generally have been built as part of planned 

single-family detached homes compared 

developments by home builders, and, as in 

with 71 percent of homes occupied by Native 

most planned communities, home choice 

Hawaiians and 63 percent of homes occupied 

was commonly limited to a few models 

by residents of Hawaii. The remaining homes 

with few options for customization. Turnkey 

on the Hawaiian home lands were mostly in 

homes generally are considered ready for 

the townhouse or other multifamily category 

occupancy immediately after completion. 

(4 percent), and a very small share (0.1 

Much of DHHL’s recent development activity 

percent) fell into the other housing type 

has been building turnkey housing in larger 

category, which includes mobile homes, 

homestead communities. These houses 

recreational vehicles, boats, and so on.

are commonly three- to five-bedroom 

Single-family homes on the Hawaiian home 

homes. DHHL indicated that its older 

lands generally fall into two categories: (1) 

turnkey stock is of similar size but is lacking 

owner-build and (2) turnkey. For owner-

some of the more modern conveniences 

build homes, the lessees hire or contract a 

like air conditioning. Many newer planned 

professional to build the home, or they build 

communities with turnkey homes also 

it themselves after assuming the lease. These 

include a homeowners association, which 

units may be built all at once or in stages, 

includes declarations, covenants, conditions, 

and they are built to owner specifications 

and restrictions imposed on residents. 

within local codes, zoning, and community 

Housing units on the Hawaiian home lands 

requirements (if any). Thus, the structure of 

tended to be newer. During the 2006-to-

owner-build homes varies widely and may 

2010 period, 91 percent of homes in the 

include single-family homes, prefabricated 

sampled Hawaiian home lands were built 

homes, shacks, Quonset huts, trailers, 

after 1960 compared with 79 percent of 

and nondwelling structures (for example, 

Native Hawaiian homes and 81 percent of 

shipping containers) converted to homes. 

residents of Hawaii homes statewide. 

In discussions about the quality of housing 

Homes on the Hawaiian home lands were also 

on the Hawaiian home lands, the interviewed 

larger on average than Native Hawaiian homes 

stakeholders focused on the quality of 

in Hawaii overall. During the 2006-to-2010 

construction and materials.33 Some of 

period, 76 percent of homes on the Hawaiian 

the older homes on the Hawaiian home 

home lands had six or more rooms, more 

lands were built by the owners to varying 

than twice the shares of Native Hawaiian and 

standards or by developers with little quality 

residents of Hawaii homes (33 and 36 percent, 

control or oversight in construction 

respectively). Again, the unique 

33  Some interviewed stakeholders indicated that the quality of materials and construction varied widely for owner-build homes, because they historically have not been subject to building standards or permitting processes. Reviewers of this report indicated, however, that building permits are required of lessees when building on DHHL lands. 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List context of the Hawaiian home lands played a 

$200,000 to $299,999 range (26 percent), 

role in this trend. DHHL takes an active role in 

the $300,000 to $499,999 range (24 

planning development on the Hawaiian home 

percent), and more than $500,000 (15 

lands with applicants in mind, and lessees 

percent). The median home values ranged 

are able to exercise some amount of choice 

widely across the homesteads, from 

in the type and size of house that gets built, 

$167,000 to $512,100. Although these home 

especially for owner-build leases. Although 

land values are not directly comparable to 

these homes in general were larger, DHHL’s 

private market values, for context, note that 

lessee surveys provided some evidence 

the median home value for Native Hawaiian 

that lessees would prefer to have still larger 

homes in the state was $463,800, and the 

units. According to the 2008 lessee survey, 

median value for all homes was $537,400.35 

68 percent of Hawaiian home lands lessees 

were considering adding an average of 2.4 

Housing Problems and Needs: 

bedrooms to their homes (DHHL, 2008). The 

Quantity

2014 lessee survey presents contradictory 

Although overcrowding has become less 

findings on the need for additional rooms. The 

prevalent in the state over time, rates of 

majority of respondents to the 2014 survey 

overcrowding on the Hawaiian home lands 

(73 percent) said they were satisfied with the 

remained higher than the rates for the state’s 

size of their home, and only 26 percent said 

Native Hawaiian households. Mikelsons et al. 

they needed additional square footage to 

(1995) found that, in 1990, Native Hawaiian 

house their families adequately.34When they 

households on the Hawaiian home lands 

were asked how many rooms they would like 

had a much higher rate of overcrowding (36 

to add to their existing home, only 33 percent 

percent) than those statewide (27 percent). 

of respondents said they would not add any 

By the 2006-to-2010 period, about 19 

rooms, and 67 percent said they would add 

percent of all households in the sampled 

rooms. Among those lessees who would like 

Hawaiian home lands were overcrowded 

to add rooms to their home, slightly more 

compared with 15 percent of Native 

than one-half would choose to add one or 

Hawaiian households statewide. In addition, 

two extra bedrooms (DHHL, 2014c). These 

6 percent of homes on the Hawaiian 

contradictory findings could be due to 

home lands were severely overcrowded in 

differences in the framing of the two survey 

contrast with 5 percent of Native Hawaiian 

questions. The first question asked about 

households in the state. As noted in section 

need, but the second question brought into 

4, stakeholders indicated that multifamily 

consideration the desire to add rooms. 

living or overcrowding is not only considered 

Home Values

culturally acceptable but also is economically 

practical, because pooling incomes across a 

Home values on the Hawaiian home lands 

larger number of adults may be necessary 

tended to be lower than home values in 

to afford housing and other expenses. This 

the state overall. Most home values in 

higher rate of overcrowding and larger 

the sampled Hawaiian home lands in the 

household size may be driving the higher 

ACS 2006-to-2010 sample were less than 

household incomes observed on the 

$200,000 (35 percent), followed by the 

sampled Hawaiian home lands. 

34  Slightly less than 2 percent of households thought their home was too large.

35  Homes on the home lands can be sold only to HHCA beneficiaries, and, although some market-based appraisals occur, most home appraisals do not include the land value. The limited market and the absence of land value in the appraisal decreases the reported values.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Interviewed stakeholders in Hawaii 

Native Hawaiian households in the state during 

described a common practice of current 

the 2006-to-2010 period. Rates of plumbing 

home land lessees modifying structures to 

(0.8 percent) and kitchen (1 percent) problems 

accommodate multiple families. Common 

in the Hawaiian home lands were one-half 

areas are used as bedrooms, multiple 

to one-third lower than the rates for Native 

persons share bedrooms, and garages or 

Hawaiian households in Hawaii overall. In 

carports often are converted into bedrooms 

1990, Hawaiian home lands households had a 

or other living space. Another practice is 

slightly higher proportion of facilities problems 

building additions to house family members; 

than did Native Hawaiian households in Hawaii 

however, this option is often difficult to fund. 

overall (Mikelsons et al., 1995). 

Some stakeholders also pointed out that 

zoning issues—locally called “ohana zoning”—

Conditions

may be associated with construction of 

In the 2014 DHHL lessee survey, 30 percent 

additional housing structures on a lot, noting 

of lessees reported the need for some type of 

that local zoning codes and enforcement 

repairs to their current units (DHHL, 2014c). 

vary.36 DHHL residential leases currently 

This percentage is an increase from the 

allow for only one dwelling, although 

27 percent who reported a need for home 

DHHL reported that it is reviewing the 

repairs in the 2008 lessee survey (DHHL, 

issues associated with allowing more than 

2008). The need for repairs and the extent 

one dwelling on a residential lot to see if a 

of the repairs required were about the same 

change should be made in its administrative 

across all islands. As found in the 2008 survey 

rules and/or its lease conditions.

and in earlier lessee surveys, the number and 

Housing Problems and Needs: Quality

severity of needed repairs tended to increase 

with the age of the housing unit. Among 

Facilities

lessee homeowners who reported the need 

for at least one type of repair, the work most 

Facilities problems exist when (1) a 

frequently required was exterior work, such 

unit lacks adequate plumbing, kitchen, 

as painting, siding, and gutters (62 percent). 

electrical, and/or heating facilities; (2) such 

More than one-half (54 percent) of lessee 

facilities do not function properly; or (3) 

homeowners reported the need for minimal 

the facilities constitute a safety hazard. 

repairs throughout the home (DHHL, 2014c). 

Housing quality information in the census 

and ACS is limited to adequacy of kitchen 

DHHL estimated that, on the older 

and plumbing facilities.37 

homesteads, about 60 percent of homes 

need some form of rehabilitation to address 

Households on the Hawaiian home lands 

major structural deficiencies, accessibility for 

reported fewer facilities problems than did 

people with disabilities, or retrofits to 

36  In 1981, the state legislature passed a bill that required counties to allow a second dwelling unit, or ohana (extended family) unit, on single-family residential lots that had adequate public facilities. This law was popularly called the “ohana zoning” law, and its stated purpose was to “assist families to purchase affordable individual living quarters and, at the same time, to encourage the preservation of the extended family” (Jaworowski, 1998: 1). The counties created their own policies to implement the new law. The law was amended in 1989 to allow the individual counties to regulate ohana zoning in their own jurisdictions. Although the counties did not repeal their ordinances at that time, they have modified them over time, and now all the counties have different requirements for ohana units (Hawaii Appleseed Center for Law and Economic Justice, n.d.). The Honolulu City Council is currently considering a bill that would make ohana housing more accessible as a means of addressing the affordable-housing issue (Cruz, 2014).

37  A unit has complete kitchen facilities when it has all of the following: (1) cooking appliances, (2) a refrigerator, and (3) a sink with piped water (https://www.factfinder.census.gov/help/en/kitchen_facilities.htm). Complete plumbing facilities include (1) hot and cold piped water, (2) a flush toilet, and (3) a bathtub or shower. All three plumbing facilities must be located in the housing unit 

https://www.factfinder.census.gov/help/en/plumbing_facilities.htm).

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List put in solar energy and reduce electricity 

in the United States as a whole, residents 

bills. Aging sewer systems and maintenance 

of the Hawaiian home lands experienced 

issues accelerate deterioration. Some of the 

affordability problems at rates not only lower 

older homes will need to be demolished 

than state averages for Native Hawaiians 

and rebuilt, although an estimate was not 

and residents of Hawaii households but 

obtained from DHHL. Stakeholders from 

also lower than the national average. As 

organizations serving Native Hawaiians in 

noted in section 4, during the 2006-to-2010 

general reported similar issues with housing 

period, about 40 percent of Native Hawaiian 

quality off the Hawaiian home lands. 

households in the state and 42 percent of 

residents of Hawaii households were cost 

Design Problems

burdened. Only 21 percent of households in 

Some major issues were also related to 

the sampled Hawaiian home lands, about 

inappropriate or inadequate construction 

one-half of the statewide rates, were cost 

for the environment or geography. 

burdened during the same period. Mikelsons 

Shortcomings in design or construction 

et al. (1995) also found that affordability 

result in increased maintenance and 

problems were less common on the Hawaiian 

repair costs and in safety concerns. For 

home lands: 11 percent of Native Hawaiian 

example, homestead residents on Hawaii 

home lands households were cost burdened 

Island described a development in which 

compared with 28 percent of Native 

most homes were built without eaves. This 

Hawaiian households in the state in 1990. 

omission led to problems of rotting on the 

Home lands leases confer several benefits 

exterior of homes by rain running down and 

that may explain the lower cost burdens. 

infiltrating the wood siding. 

These benefits include an annual lease rent 

Another example referred to homestead 

of $1.00 per year, a 7-year exemption from 

communities on Oahu Island that were 

real property tax, a complete exemption 

built on a mountainside. Because the land 

of tax on land, a minimal real property tax 

has shifted and several of the homes face 

after the first 7 years (applies only to the 

the ocean unprotected, walls have split 

county of Kauai and the city and county 

or rotted from exposure, foundations 

of Honolulu), and low-interest government 

are deteriorating, and floors are weak 

loans. Nevertheless, stakeholders were 

or rotting. Because the homes are on a 

clear that it was still difficult for low- and 

mountain, they generally have many steps 

moderate-income groups to afford to 

for access. These steps are deteriorating, 

purchase or build a home on the Hawaiian 

and they are especially unsafe for an 

home lands. 

aging population. These communities 

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian 

also have dealt with a multitude of issues 

Home Lands Waiting List

associated with an aging sewer system 

that is no longer maintained by the county 

This subsection presents the results of a 

because of its location on Hawaiian home 

household survey administered in person 

lands, although the system also serves a 

to a sample of 516 HHCA beneficiaries on 

neighboring wealthy fee-simple community.

the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian 

Housing Problems and Needs: Price

home lands. The purpose of the household 

survey was to better understand the housing 

Although housing affordability problems 

needs and conditions, income, education, 

were much more prevalent in Hawaii than 

age, and household composition of the one 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List group that is potentially eligible (depending 

the respondents. The overall unweighted 

on income) but not currently served under 

response rate (that is, the percentage of 

the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant. 

households that opted in who completed 

the survey) was 82.2 percent.39 The survey 

Framing and Sources of Information

instrument and tables reporting detailed 

For purposes of eligibility for homestead 

survey results are included in appendix B. 

leases, an HHCA beneficiary is defined as 

The presentation of survey findings 

“any descendant of not less than one-half 

first describes demographic, social, 

part of the blood of the races inhabiting 

and economic conditions, followed by a 

the Hawaiian Islands previous to 1778.” In 

discussion of housing conditions and needs. 

the case of those relatives who receive 

This subsection includes comparisons of 

a lease through transfer or succession 

households on the Hawaiian home lands 

under sections 207, 208, or 209 of HHCA, 

and among Native Hawaiians and residents 

a blood quantum of at least 25 percent 

of Hawaii based on an analysis of ACS 

Hawaiian blood is required.38 The blood 

data. Because the survey data collection 

quantum measure relies on proof of 

occurred in 2014 and 2015 and the ACS 

ancestry by individual applicants, so no 

data collection occurred between 2006 

survey counts exist for the number of 

and 2010, the differences presented in this 

people who meet this criterion statewide 

subsection could be partially accounted for 

or in any county as a whole. 

by changes that occurred overall, so these 

For the household survey, a representative 

results should be interpreted with caution. 

sample was drawn from a list of applicants 

The differences in all cases are stark enough 

on the waiting list for a lease on the 

that the general trends hold.

Hawaiian home lands and who opted in, 

Demographic, Social, and Economic 

via postcard, to participate in the survey. 

Conditions

Obtaining a random sample of HHCA 

beneficiaries from the general population 

Population Mobility

of the state would have been beyond the 

funding limits of the study. After reviewing 

Households on the waiting list tended 

several administrative databases, the study 

to move less often than the population 

team determined that the waiting list 

in Hawaii overall. About 95 percent of 

database provided the best pool from which 

households on the waiting list had lived in 

to draw a random sample of individuals of 

the same place for at least 1 year at the time 

Native Hawaiian heritage. 

of the survey compared with 86 percent 

of Native Hawaiian households statewide 

Data collection took place from August 

and 84 percent of residents of Hawaii 

2014 through April 2015. Trained Native 

households. The percentage for households 

Hawaiian interviewers conducted the 

on sampled Hawaiian home lands was about 

interviews at the residences of the 

the same as the share for households on the 

respondents to enable the interviewers 

waiting list (95 percent). These households 

to document indicators of quality and 

would be expected to move less often 

adequacy of the housing occupied by 

38  The Hawaiian Homes Commission Act, 1920, as amended, includes provisions for leases to Hawaiians (section 207); conditions of leases, including transfers (section 208); and successors to lessees (section 209).

39  Some postcard opt-ins to the survey that were received late in the field period were sampled out because the research team did not need to include them to reach the sample targets. The unweighted response rate excludes those cases.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List because they have long-term Hawaiian 

(25 percent) on sampled Hawaiian home 

home lands leases. The reason for the 

lands. By contrast, only about 9 percent of 

relatively low incidence of moving among 

households on the waiting list were headed 

households on the waiting list lacks a clear 

by a single parent with children compared 

explanation.40 

with 15 percent for Native Hawaiian 

households. The waiting list rate was more 

Household Composition and 

similar to the rate observed on sampled 

Structure

Hawaiian home lands (9 percent). 

Age of household head. The largest share of 

Extended family household arrangements. 

households on the waiting list were headed 

Although the most common family members 

by an individual who was between the ages 

living in households on the waiting list were 

of 45 and 59 (39 percent). About 40 percent 

spouses and children, many households 

were older (30 percent were between the 

also included other family members (exhibit 

ages of 60 and 74, and 10 percent were age 

5.4). About 19 percent of households 

75 or older), and 21 percent were younger 

included the householder’s grandchildren. 

(13 percent were between the ages of 35 

Most of these households (15 percent of all 

and 44, 8 percent were between the ages 

households, or 82 percent of households 

of 25 and 34, and about 1 percent were 

that included grandchildren) also included 

between the ages of 18 and 24). 

the householder’s children. Further, about 10 

Household size. Like households on the 

percent included the householder’s parents, 

sampled Hawaiian home lands, households 

and 2 percent included the householder’s 

on the waiting list were larger than 

grandparents. This finding suggests that 

Native Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii 

multigenerational living arrangements occur 

households in the state overall. About 39 

with some frequency. Further, about 10 

percent of households on the waiting list 

percent of households on the waiting list 

included five or more members, about 

included the householder’s sibling, 1 percent 

equal to the share on the sampled Hawaiian 

included an aunt or uncle, and 8 percent 

home lands (40 percent). By contrast, only 

included other family members. 

27 percent of Native Hawaiian households 

Employment

and 14 percent of residents of Hawaii 

households were that large. 

Heads of households on the waiting list were 

less likely to be employed than heads of 

Household type. Households on the 

households among Native Hawaiians overall, 

waiting list and Native Hawaiian households 

but they were more likely to be employed 

were about equally likely to be married 

than were heads of households among 

couples with children, but households 

residents of the Hawaiian home lands. About 

on the waiting list had a smaller share of 

60 percent of heads of households on 

single-parent households than did Native 

the waiting list were employed compared 

Hawaiian households. About 25 percent of 

with heads of households among Native 

households on the waiting list included a 

Hawaiians (62 percent), residents of Hawaii 

married couple with children compared with 

(59 percent), and sampled Hawaiian home 

23 percent of Native Hawaiian households 

lands residents (58 percent). 

overall. This rate was also similar to the rate 

40  Survey numbers are estimates weighted to be representative of HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt in to the survey via postcard. 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Exhibit 5.4. Extended Family Arrangements Among Waiting List Households

Point Estimate

Margin of Error for 95% Confidence Interval (%)

Percent of households that include both the household 

15.7

±1.9

head's children and grandchildren

Percent of households by type of member defined by 

relationship to household head

Spouse

60.3

±1.6

Sibling

9.7

±3.7

Children

53.6

±5.7

Grandchildren

19.1

±1.3

Parents

10.4

±.2

Grandparents

1.5

±.2

Aunt/ uncle

0.6

±.8

Other

7.8

±3.1

Notes: Estimates are weighted to be representative of HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt in via postcard. Sample sizes are unweighted. The confidence interval is computed at the 95 percent level.

Source: 2014–2015 Urban Institute Household Survey of HHCA Beneficiaries on the Waiting List for a Lease on the Hawaiian Home Lands Income and Poverty

pensions), they appeared to have higher 

rates of receipt for means-tested public cash 

Households on the waiting list had 

assistance than did other groups. About 20 

substantially lower incomes than did other 

percent of households on the waiting list 

groups in Hawaii. The median annual 

received public cash assistance compared 

household income of those on the waiting 

with about 7 percent of Native Hawaiian 

list was about $48,350 (in 2010 dollars), 

households and households on the sampled 

according to the research team’s survey.41 

Hawaiian home lands and 3 percent of 

This median income was considerably less 

residents of Hawaii households. 

than the median income for Native Hawaiian 

households ($62,900) and all households in 

Housing Conditions: Problems and 

Hawaii ($66,500) during the 2006-to-2010 

Needs 

period.

The household survey included questions 

Although 80 percent of households on the 

about housing quantity, quality, and 

waiting list received income from wages 

affordability that paralleled questions used 

or a salary and although large shares 

by the U.S. Census Bureau in the decennial 

also received income from retirement or 

census and ACS (see section 4, exhibit 4.6 

pensions (44 percent from Social Security 

for definitions). The survey provided 

or Railroad Retirement and 39 percent from 

retirement, survivor, or disability 

41  The median household income in nominal dollars was $52,531. To compare this figure with other analyses in this report, it was converted to 2010 dollars by using the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Inflation Calculator. Because surveys were conducted in both 2014 

and 2015, the amount in 2010 dollars was calculated using each of the 2014 to 2010 and 2015 to 2010 Consumer Price Index adjustments ($48,385.96 and $48,328.60, respectively). The average of these two amounts ($48,357.28) was used as the 2010 median household income. 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List additional detail about housing conditions 

percent of households on the waiting list 

and satisfaction with housing that is also 

were overcrowded, which is about twice 

presented here. 

the rate of overcrowding for households 

on the sample of Hawaiian home lands (19 

Housing Problems and Needs: 

percent). The disparity between households 

Quantity

on the waiting list and the state’s Native 

Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii households 

Households on the waiting list typically 

was even larger: only 15 percent of Native 

lived in units with three bedrooms and one 

Hawaiian households and 8 percent of 

to two bathrooms. About 40 percent of 

residents of Hawaii households were 

these households lived in three-bedroom 

overcrowded. Households on the waiting 

units, 21 percent lived in two-bedroom 

list were also much more likely to be 

units, and 11 percent lived in one-bedroom 

severely overcrowded.42 About 13 percent of 

units. Of the remaining 29 percent of 

households on the waiting list were severely 

the households on the waiting list, 20 

overcrowded compared with 6 percent 

percent lived in units with four bedrooms 

of households on the sampled Hawaiian 

and 9 percent lived in units with five or 

home lands, 5 percent of Native Hawaiian 

more bedrooms. Further, 45 percent of 

households statewide, and 3 percent of 

households had one bathroom and 39 

residents of Hawaii households. Further, of 

percent had two (exhibit 5.5). 

the households on the waiting list looking to 

Overcrowding was substantially more 

move from their current unit (41 percent of 

prevalent among households on the waiting 

all households), about 19 percent were living 

list than other groups. About 38 

in overcrowded housing.

42  HUD categorizes a housing unit as severely overcrowded if it has more than 1.5 persons per room.

Exhibit 5.5. Households by Housing Unit Characteristics Among Waiting List Households Point Estimate

Margin of Error for 95% Confidence Interval (%)

Percent of Households by Number of Bedrooms

1

11.1

±.8

2

20.5

±4.9

3

39.6

±10.2

4

19.8

±0.7

5 or more

9.0

±5.1

Percent of Households by Number of Bathrooms

1

44.7

±3.6

2

38.9

±1.7

3

12.7

±2.2

4 or more

2.6

±0.6

Source: Source: 2014-15 Urban Institute household survey of native Hawaiians

Notes: Estimates are weighted to be representative of Native Hawaiians living on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt-in via postcard. 

The confidence interval is computed at the 95% level.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Housing Problems and Needs: 

Conditions

Quality

Although less than 10 percent of households 

Facilities

on the waiting list reported being 

dissatisfied with their current housing and 

Households on the waiting list reported a 

11 percent indicated that the overall physical 

greater incidence of facilities deficiencies 

condition of their unit was unacceptable, 

than did Hawaiian home lands 

respondents noted problems across a 

households, Native Hawaiian households, 

range of physical condition issues: pests 

and residents of Hawaii households. 

such as rodents, insects, or termites (63 

About 10 percent of households on the 

percent); peeling paint (25 percent); mold 

waiting list had incomplete plumbing 

(15 percent); holes or open cracks in walls or 

facilities, which is 10 times the 1-percent 

ceiling (14 percent); and visible holes in the 

rate in the other three groups. About 7 

floor (4 percent) (exhibit 5.6). In response 

percent of households on the waiting 

to a series of open-ended questions about 

list had incomplete kitchen facilities 

dissatisfaction with their current housing, 

compared with 1 percent of households 

respondents also reported problems related 

on sampled Hawaiian home lands and 2 

to maintenance and upkeep and the age of 

percent of Native Hawaiian and residents 

the housing unit.

of Hawaii households.43 Of households on 

the waiting list, about 15 percent lived 

Housing Problems and Needs: Price

in units that had a plumbing or kitchen 

deficiency, about 5 percent experienced 

A larger share of households on the waiting 

a heating or electrical deficiency, and 12 

list experienced cost burden (paying 30 

percent experienced some other type of 

percent or more of their income for housing) 

condition deficiency. 

than did the other groups, but a smaller 

share of households on the waiting list was 

severely cost burdened (paying 

43  The standard kitchen deficiency measure has been altered by dropping whether the unit had built-in burners in working order, because responses indicated that the survey question may have been misinterpreted by respondents. Given this possible misinterpretation, the rate of incomplete kitchen facilities calculated may underestimate the true rate.

Exhibit 5.6. Households by Condition Issues Among Waiting List Households

Point Estimate

Margin of Error for 95% Confidence Interval (%)

Percent of households with the fol owing interior conditions

Visible holes in the floor

3.5

±.7

Holes or open cracks in walls or ceiling

13.7

±2.6

Peeling paint

24.5

±1.6

Signs of rats (or other vermin)

62.7

±4.5

Mold

15.4

±7.5

Notes: Estimates are weighted to be representative of HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt in via postcard. Sample sizes are unweighted. "n" refers to the total number of respondents who were asked the question. The confidence interval is computed at the 95 percent level.

Source: 2014–2015 Urban Institute Household Survey of HHCA Beneficiaries on the Waiting List for a Lease on the Hawaiian Home Lands HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List 50 percent of more of their income on 

(3) those living on the Hawaiian home 

housing). About 46 percent of households 

lands, and (4) HHCA beneficiaries on the 

on the waiting list were cost burdened 

waiting list for the Hawaiian home lands. 

compared with 42 percent of residents of 

This subsection highlights key differences 

Hawaii households, 40 percent of Native 

among these groups (exhibit 5.7). The 

Hawaiian households, and 21 percent of 

analysis showed overall that households 

households on the sampled Hawaiian home 

on the waiting list tended to be most 

lands. About 22 percent of households on 

demographically similar to households living 

the waiting list were severely cost burdened 

on the Hawaiian home lands, but households 

compared with 33 percent of Native 

on the waiting list experienced the highest 

Hawaiian households and 34 percent of 

rates of disadvantage and housing problems. 

residents of Hawaii households. The lower 

The following bullet points address the 

rates of severe cost burden for households 

specific key differences.

on the waiting list could be due to their 

higher rates of overcrowding, which they 

•  Households on the waiting list and 

may use as an affordability strategy. It is 

households on sampled Hawaiian home 

notable, however, that even with nearly two 

lands were less mobile and had larger 

in five households on the waiting list living in 

households than did Native Hawaiian and 

overcrowded circumstances, almost one-

residents of Hawaii households. 

half of those households spend more than 

•  Households on the waiting list and 

30 percent of their income on housing. In 

households on home lands also had lower 

addition, households on the waiting list did 

shares of single-parent households than 

not commonly receive housing subsidies. 

did Native Hawaiian households. 

Of all households on the waiting list, only 

22 percent reported ever having lived in 

•  Heads of households on the waiting list 

subsidized housing. 

had a slightly lower employment rate than 

members of Native Hawaiian households 

Despite these affordability challenges, only 

residing in Hawaii but had a higher rate 

a small share of households on the waiting 

than members of households on the 

list indicated the need to move out of their 

Hawaiian home lands.

unit in the near future. Only about 5 percent 

of owners and 3 percent of renters expected 

•  Households on the waiting list had 

to leave their homes. Among owners, the 

substantially lower incomes and received 

reasons for leaving included being unable 

public cash assistance at much higher 

to afford their mortgage and having a home 

rates than did households on Hawaiian 

in foreclosure. Among renters, reasons 

home lands, Native Hawaiian households, 

included expecting eviction within 60 days, 

and residents of Hawaii households.

being asked to leave so someone else could 

•  Households on the waiting list 

move in, and being asked to leave because 

experienced all types of housing 

they were behind on their payments. 

problems (overcrowding, quality, 

Summarizing Differences Among 

affordability) at higher rates than did 

Groups

households on Hawaiian home lands, 

Native Hawaiian households, and 

The previous sections describe the 

residents of Hawaii households. 

characteristics and needs of four groups: 

(1) Native Hawaiians, (2) residents of Hawaii, 

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Exhibit 5.7. Comparison of Waiting List Households, Residents of the Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands, Native Hawaiians, and Residents of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010 and 2014 to 2015

Waiting List Households

Residents of Sampled Hawaiian 

State Native Hawaiians

State Residents of Hawai

Home Lands

Percent of the population living 

94.6

94.5

86.1

84.2

in the same place as the year 

before

Percent of households by type

Married couples with children

25.4

24.8

23

19.6

Single-parent households 

8.5

8.6

14.6

6.3

with children

Percent of households that 

38.5

39.6

26.5

14.1

were large (five or more 

members)

Employment rate *

59.5

57.7

61.9

59.1

Rate of public cash assistance 

19.5

6.7

7.1

2.7

receipt**

Median household income***

48,357

66,901

62,852

66,420

Percent of households that 

38.4

19.3

15.3

7.8

were overcrowded

Percent of households that 

13.3

5.8

4.7

2.7

were severely overcrowded

Percent of households with 

9.6

0.8

1.1

0.7

incomplete plumbing

Percent of households with 

6.8

1

1.9

1.5

incomplete kitchen****

Percent of households that 

46

20.7

40.1

41.9

were cost burdened

Percent of households that 

21.6

32.9

33.9

were severely cost burdened

* The employment rate for waiting list households is for the household head only; the employment rates for the other categories are for the entire population age 16 and older.

** The American Community Survey asked households for the amount of income they receive from "Any public assistance or welfare payments from the state or local welfare office," while the household survey identified Temporary Assistance for Needy Families and general assistance. The different wording of the public assistance question in the two surveys may account for some of the observed difference between waiting list households and the other groups.

***The median household income in the State Residents of Hawaii column is for the total population of Hawaii, because the median for non-Native Hawaiians was not available from the U.S. Census Bureau. Further, the waiting list household median income was converted to 2010 

dollars using the following method: The median household income in nominal dollars was $52,531. To compare this figure with our other analyses, we converted it to 2010 dollars using the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Inflation Calculator. Because surveys were conducted in both 2014 and 2015, we calculated the amount in 2010 dollars using each of the 2014-to-2010 and 2015-to-2010 Consumer Price Index adjustments ($48,385.96 and $48,328.60, respectively). Then we took the average of these two amounts ($48,357.28).

****The standard kitchen deficiency measure for waiting list households was altered by dropping the question regarding whether the unit has built-in burners in working order. Responses indicate that participants may have misinterpreted the relevant survey question.

Notes: Estimates are weighted to be representative of HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt in via postcard. 

Source: 2014–2015 Urban Institute Household Survey of Native Hawaiians on the Waiting List for a Lease on the Hawaiian Home Lands; data for the other groups come from the U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2010 and 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

Section 6. Housing Policies  Hawaii. Other stakeholders also noted 

that households on the waiting list turn 

and Programs

down leases because they face barriers to 

securing the necessary loan. This pattern 

of turning down lease offers and the 

associated reasons were confirmed in the 

This section discusses Hawaiian home 

survey of households on the waiting list. 

lands policies and other housing assistance 

The waiting list cycling leads to a common 

programs available to Native Hawaiians (and 

misperception that the waiting list does 

to other low-income residents of Hawaii) 

not move or that people are “passed over” 

and examines homeownership and access 

for leases. 

to mortgages. The research team’s review of 

policy documents and research reports was 

•  Homestead associations, beneficiary-

enhanced by discussions with stakeholders, 

controlled organizations that represent 

ongoing discussions with the State of 

and serve the interests of their respective 

Hawaii’s Department of Hawaiian Home 

homestead communities, often engage in 

Lands (DHHL), and the survey of households 

work related to economic development 

on the waiting list. 

and self-sufficiency, community 

development, cultural preservation, 

Key Findings

community organizing, and improving 

overall quality of life. DHHL supports 

Key findings for this section include— 

homestead associations through the 

•  The Hawaiian home lands are the only 

provision of training and technical 

source of land and housing reserved 

assistance and grantmaking and involves 

exclusively for Native Hawaiians and 

the associations through its beneficiary 

eligibility for housing on the Hawaiian 

consultation process in its policy 

home lands is limited to the definition 

development, its regional and island-

included in the Hawaiian Homes 

level planning processes, and other major 

Commission Act (HHCA). DHHL provides 

program developments. 

homestead leases and housing assistance. 

•  HHCA beneficiaries tended to prefer 

Within DHHL, the Land Development 

free-standing homes. In the survey of 

Division, the Homestead Services Division, 

households on the waiting list, 60 percent 

and the HALE Program (financial literacy 

of the respondents listed an improved lot 

services) manage the waiting list and the 

with a new house as their first choice, and 

offering and awarding of available lots. 

46 percent listed an improved lot with 

•  DHHL cycles through the waiting lists 

an existing house as their second choice. 

every few years as lots are completed, but 

Further, only one-half of the households 

most people do not assume a lease when 

on the waiting list would be willing to 

their name comes up. DHHL reported that 

accept a townhouse or multiplex unit 

applicants turn down leases because they 

rather than a single-family unit in an effort 

do not qualify for a loan if the offering is 

to get a home faster. 

a turnkey award, are not interested in the 

•  In previous years, DHHL prioritized 

lot available, are waiting for property in 

turnkey developments and did not offer 

a specific area, believe they are too old 

as many vacant lot (owner-build) options. 

to take on a mortgage, or are living on 

Some stakeholders think this practice 

the mainland and not ready to return to 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

has made it harder for low- to moderate-

this authority. Stakeholders noted that 

income Native Hawaiians to have a lease 

the prevailing wage rates are often higher 

on the Hawaiian home lands due to the 

than market or labor union wage rates, 

higher cost of those homes. DHHL has 

increasing the cost of labor. 

piloted some rental and rent-to-own 

models as a strategy to better meet 

Hawaiian Home Lands Assistance

the needs of some lower-income HHCA 

History of Hawaiian Landownership

beneficiaries. DHHL more recently revised 

its planned offerings to allow for more 

Hawaiian home lands assistance grew out 

vacant lot opportunities for more owner-

of changes in the land system in Hawaii 

build or self-help options for prospective 

and the displacement of Native Hawaiians 

lessees. 

from their traditional lands. Before contact 

with Europeans and the subsequent arrival 

•  The trust nature of the land is a major 

of traders, whalers, missionaries, settlers, 

constraint with building or purchasing 

and other foreigners, inhabitants of Hawaii 

homes on Hawaiian home lands. Private 

had no concept of private landownership. 

lenders are unwilling to lend to an HHCA 

Land tenure was hierarchical. The basic land 

beneficiary homebuyer because no 

unit was controlled by a chief acting akin to 

mechanism would be in place to foreclose 

a trustee, with land agents and subchiefs 

in the event of a borrower’s default. To 

managing smaller amounts of land. At the 

address this issue, a variety of federal 

bottom of the hierarchy, farmers worked 

programs have been designed to support 

the land to the common benefit. The arrival 

homeownership on Hawaiian home lands. 

of Westerners altered the socioeconomic 

•  DHHL staff highlighted a number of ways 

patterns, with the economy turning from 

they use Native Hawaiian Housing Block 

primarily subsistence-based farming to one 

Grant (NHHBG) funds, including capital 

involved in international trade, disrupting 

improvement, mortgage and home-

traditional notions of land rights and 

repair loan financing, loss mitigation, 

responsibilities (Levy, 1975). 

and grants for model activities. Model 

The 1840s marked the beginning of private 

activities include safety enhancements, 

landownership in Hawaii. An 1846 statute 

organizational support, community 

established a board of commissioners to 

policing, and other model activities that 

overhaul the traditional land system. The 

incorporate educational, cultural, and 

period that followed is called the Great 

recreational activities for affordable-

Mahele, which involved the division of 

housing residents. 

land formerly controlled by the king and 

•  One challenge related to Native 

chiefs among the king, the chiefs, and the 

American Housing Assistance and Self-

government. Commoners were allowed to 

Determination Act (NAHASDA) funding is 

submit claims for parcels of land to which 

that, because NHHBG is a federal funding 

they had a rightful claim under law. Although 

stream, DHHL must pay prevailing wages 

the Great Mahele was promoted as a 

as determined by the Davis-Bacon Act 

benefit to the Hawaiian people, it ultimately 

wage requirements. Although American 

contributed to dispossession for most 

Indian and Alaska Native tribes can apply 

Hawaiians, because only a small proportion 

their own prevailing wage rates in lieu of 

of the land was distributed to commoners. 

the federal ones, DHHL does not have 

In the aftermath of the Great Mahele, many 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

members of the Native Hawaiian community 

In section 223 of HHCA, Congress reserved 

were further alienated from traditional 

to itself the right to alter, amend, or repeal 

lands, because some of the allotments were 

HHCA. Consistent with this provision, 

of poor quality for subsistence activities 

section 4 of the Admission Act provides 

or were less useable because they were 

limitations on the State’s administration of 

scattered near or throughout ranches and 

the Hawaiian Home Lands program and 

plantations, unprotected from cattle or 

the federally created Hawaiian Home Lands 

ranch activities. By the end of this process, 

Funds (hereafter referred to together as 

Native Hawaiians found themselves with 

the Trust) and also provides that HHCA 

legal control of only a very small proportion 

is subject to amendment or repeal by the 

of the islands (La Crois and Roumasset, 

State only with the consent of the Congress 

1990; Linnekin, 1987).

of the United States. Recognizing, however, 

that it was vesting the State with day-to-

Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 

day administrative authority, Congress, 

1920

in section 4 of the Admission Act, also 

The HHCA of 1920, as amended, was 

provided exceptions within which the 

passed by Congress and signed into law by 

State could amend certain administrative 

President Warren Harding on July 9, 1921.44 

provisions of HHCA without the consent 

It provides for the self-sufficiency and well-

of the Congress. HHCA is a cooperative 

being of the Native Hawaiian people through 

federalism statute, a compound of 

a government-sponsored homesteading 

interdependent federal and state law that 

program. Under HHCA,  Native Hawaiian 

establishes a federal law but also provides 

means a descendant of the aboriginal 

for implementation through state law.47 

people who, prior to 1778, occupied and 

Although Congress has repeatedly 

exercised sovereignty in the area that now 

acknowledged its special political and 

constitutes the State of Hawaii.45 

trust relationship with the Native Hawaiian 

HHCA created a Hawaiian Homes 

community since the overthrow of the 

Commission to administer more than 

Kingdom of Hawaii more than a century ago, 

200,000 acres of public lands in trust for 

the federal government does not maintain 

the benefit of Native Hawaiians on the 

a formal government-to-government 

islands of Hawaii, Kauai Lanai, Maui, Molokai, 

relationship with the Native Hawaiian 

and Oahu. In 1959, Congress enacted the 

community as an organized, sovereign 

Hawaii Admission Act (Admission Act)46 

entity. Further, no single agency in Hawaii 

to admit the Territory of Hawaii into the 

is responsible for housing for the Native 

United States as a state. In compliance with 

Hawaiian community, unlike the tribally 

the Admission Act, a compact was to be 

designated housing entities (TDHEs) or tribal 

adopted with the United States relating to 

housing departments that operate housing 

the management and disposition of the 

programs in most other Native American 

Hawaiian home lands, and the new State 

communities. DHHL provides homestead 

of Hawaii adopted HHCA, as amended, 

leases and housing assistance only to those 

through article XII of its constitution. 

Native Hawaiians eligible for 

44  Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1920, as amended, chapter 42, 42 Stat. 108.

45  Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1920, as amended, Title 2, Section 201(a).

46  Hawaii Admission Act of 1959, 73 Stat. 4. Section 1 

47  See CFR Parts 47 and 48  Federal Register, 80 (91) May 12, 2015.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

housing on the Hawaiian home lands under 

homestead associations are voluntary 

the HHCA definition. Other Hawaiians who 

groups of residents that, although their 

do not qualify as HHCA beneficiaries must 

specific activities vary, often engage in 

seek assistance through housing assistance 

work related to economic development and 

programs serving all residents of Hawaii.48 

self-sufficiency, community development, 

cultural preservation, community organizing, 

As discussed in section 5, DHHL maintains 

and improving overall quality of life. 

and manages the HHCA beneficiary 

Examples of recent activities follow.

waiting list for homestead leases, and the 

demand is consistently greater than the 

•  Organizing community health and cultural 

supply. In its 2012–2017 Strategic Goals and 

education programs and events.

Objectives document (DHHL, 2012), DHHL 

recognizes this supply issue and includes 

•  Sponsoring cultural events featuring 

objectives designed to expand “residential 

Hawaiian dance, music, and crafts.

homesteading opportunities into areas such 

•  Building a community center, cultural 

as Kauhale, multi-family homes, rental and 

center, or medical center.

transitional units.” DHHL indicates that its 

most recent initiative provides subsistence 

•  Promoting homestead cottage industries, 

agricultural lots for qualifying Native 

including providing space for production 

Hawaiians interested in a rural lifestyle and 

and sales through local markets.

an opportunity for self-help and owner-build 

•  Supporting a community garden to 

options on these lots, which are often more 

educate the community on local plants 

affordable. This shift represents a departure 

and foods.

from the existing emphasis on owner-

occupied single-family homes on long-term 

•  Developing and implementing 

leased lots. In addition to administering the 

conservation plans.

homesteading program, DHHL leases trust 

lands not in homestead use at market value 

•  Hosting community work days for 

and issues revocable permits, licenses, and 

community cleanup, planting native 

rights-of-entry. The income from these 

plants, or development projects such as 

enterprises is used to supplement DHHL’s 

building fences to control soil erosion. 

programs, including continued homestead 

•  Organizing volunteer activities, such as 

development (DHHL, n.d. [a]). 

community service. 

Homestead Associations and 

Homeowner Associations

Some of these organizations are nonprofit 

organizations that have federal tax-

A homestead association is a beneficiary-

exempt status, and some are incorporated 

controlled organization that represents 

community development corporations. 

and serves the interests of its homestead 

Some homestead associations have also 

community and has as its stated purpose 

joined together in larger community 

the representation of and provision of 

development, community service, and 

services to its homestead community. 

advocacy organizations. One example 

According to DHHL, about 50 homestead 

is the Kapolei Community Development 

associations are in the various communities 

Corporation, a collaboration of three or four 

on the Hawaiian home lands. These 

homestead communities that aims to 

48  The State of Hawaii Office of Hawaiian Affairs has from time to time established programs to assist Native Hawaiians with housing needs.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

promote family and cultural preservation. 

maintenance of the community, which 

The Sovereign Councils of the Hawaiian 

are developed to protect property values, 

Homelands Assembly, an aggregate group 

preserve the characteristics of the homestead 

that includes more than 20 homestead 

community, and establish the responsibilities 

communities, engages in advocacy work 

of its members. Failure to comply with these 

to preserve the HHCA of 1920 and the land 

rules could lead to the imposition of fines or, 

trust. It also advocates for the interests of 

ultimately, in some cases, lease cancellation 

Hawaiian home lands beneficiaries, including 

(DHHL, n.d. [b]). Although some stakeholders 

supporting a role for beneficiaries in 

argued that HOAs are particularly necessary 

decisionmaking, and works to build the self-

to preserve home values, a goal that is 

sufficiency of member associations. 

outside of DHHL’s stated mission, others said 

that HOAs can create cultural appropriateness 

DHHL supports homestead associations 

challenges, because some rules, such as 

through the provision of training and 

prohibition of food-producing plants in a 

technical assistance and grantmaking, 

yard or leaving shoes outside, conflict with 

involves the associations in its program and 

traditional Native Hawaiian cultural practices. 

policy development and its decisionmaking 

regarding land use and long-term land 

Housing Preferences Among 

dispositions, and involves the associations 

Residents on Hawaiian Home Lands 

in its regional planning processes. DHHL 

and Households on the Waiting List

also provides homestead associations with 

leadership training, supports them in project 

This subsection discusses findings 

planning and in applying for tax-exempt 

concerning location, home size and features, 

status, and has conducted a small number of 

community amenities, and preferences 

environmental assessments for homestead 

for homeownership or renting based on 

associations. It has also provided grants to 

the stakeholder interviews and survey of 

support a range of homestead association 

households on the waiting list. 

projects, including association development 

(for example, increasing membership, board 

Location

training, and strategic planning), events 

Location emerged as an important factor: 

(for example, festivals), community and 

households were willing to postpone 

land development (for example, building 

accepting a homestead lease in order to 

a community center, supporting a farmers 

get an offer in the right location. Of those 

market), and self-policing programs. 

households on the waiting list that had 

In addition, about a dozen homestead 

received a previous lease offer, nearly one-

communities have homeowner associations 

half (46 percent) turned it down because 

(HOAs). HOAs in Hawaiian home land 

they did not like the location. Further, 60 

communities are mostly in newer, turnkey 

percent of all households on the waiting list 

communities and have come into being 

would not be willing to accept a lease in a 

through two primary means. In some cases, 

less desirable location in order to receive a 

HOAs were already in place before DHHL’s 

home faster. Some stakeholders mentioned 

acquisition of the land, so these communities 

that certain areas are preferred because they 

came with preexisting HOAs. In others, the 

have strong Native Hawaiian communities 

communities chose to adopt HOAs. The HOA 

and are often more affordable (for example, 

is responsible for promulgating and enforcing 

the leeward side of Oahu Island and the 

rules and guidelines for the operation and 

eastern Hilo side of Hawaii Island). 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

Home Features

factors in their housing preferences. When 

asked to report their most desired feature 

Most of the stakeholders said that the 

in a new home, the three most popular 

cultural values surrounding family drive 

answers that households reported were 

Native Hawaiians’ desire for larger homes 

more indoor space (19 percent), a certain 

that can accommodate multifamily or 

number of bedrooms and/or bathrooms 

extended family households. Having room 

(19 percent), and a home with a yard or 

to expand the home or build an additional 

patio (14 percent). 

home on the lot was desirable. Having 

sufficient onstreet and offstreet parking to 

Homeownership

accommodate all cars in a large household 

Several stakeholders noted that Native 

was also considered desirable. Stakeholders 

Hawaiians tend to prefer homeownership 

suggested that people often prefer older 

over renting. A 2008 survey by the State 

homesteads, which have larger lots, so they 

of Hawaii Office of Hawaiian Affairs 

can accommodate these preferences.

substantiated this point. Survey results 

Stakeholders also noted preferences 

indicated that 70 percent of Native 

among Native Hawaiians for large outdoor 

Hawaiians on the waiting list for a Section 8 

gathering spaces and climate-appropriate 

Housing Choice Voucher said they preferred 

features. Native Hawaiians prefer to use 

homeownership to renting compared with 

outdoor areas like lanais and garages for 

42 percent of other residents of Hawaii. 

gathering places and prefer these areas to 

Further, in the survey of households 

be large “so people can come together.” 

on the waiting list, less than 5 percent 

Some stakeholders also indicated that 

of households listed an apartment or 

outdoor kitchens are desirable and noted a 

condominium (types more commonly 

preference for large hallways and windows 

associated with renting) as their first or 

placed to allow for natural drafts and 

second choice type of DHHL property.49 By 

ventilation, because it not only reflects island 

contrast, 60 percent listed an improved lot 

living but also reduces cooling costs. 

with a new house as their first choice, and 

46 percent listed an improved lot with an 

According to the household survey, HHCA 

existing house as their second choice. Only 

beneficiaries on the waiting list had similar 

one-half of the households on the waiting 

preferences to Hawaiian home lands 

list would be willing to accept a townhouse 

residents. The feature mentioned most 

or multiplex unit rather than a single-family 

often, by 68 percent of respondents, was 

unit in order to get a home faster. 

“structurally conducive to climate,” which 

included features such as lanais, windows 

Stakeholders gave several reasons that could 

for cross-ventilation, and shading with roof 

be driving this preference. First, attaining 

line extensions. Exterior appearance was 

homeownership in general is a source of 

mentioned by 65 percent of respondents, 

pride. They also noted the status that is 

followed by land to grow Hawaiian plants, 

attached to having homeownership through 

fruits, and flowers (61 percent); parking for 

a Hawaiian home lands lease; the lease 

ohana, or extended family (59 percent); and 

indicates a connection to family, land, and 

number and types of rooms (55 percent). 

Native Hawaiian identity. A few stakeholders 

Of the respondents, 37 percent stated that 

also thought Native Hawaiians preferred 

such features were extremely important 

homeownership because they perceive 

49  Other options included improved lot with no house, improved lot with existing house, improved lot with new house, and townhouse or duplex.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

fewer rules associated with it than with 

the offering and award of available lots. Lots 

leasing. Older home land communities may 

become available individually when leases 

also be preferred to newer developments 

are surrendered or cancelled (for example, 

with HOAs and the regulations that 

due to failure to pay loans or improve lots as 

accompany them. 

agreed). Lots also become available when 

DHHL develops a planned community for 

The household survey asked HHCA 

contractor-built, self-help, and/or owner-

beneficiaries on the waiting list about the 

build homes. The previous focus for DHHL 

services and amenities that are most needed 

was on turnkey developments rather than 

in their community, community attributes 

other development models. DHHL’s house 

that were most important to them, and 

production volume varies. They had one 

features they were looking for in a new 

project with 200 houses built in 1 year, but 

community. The amenity that respondents 

the most current cycle as of July 2014 had 

most frequently mentioned was a grocery 

only about 100 houses planned. 

store or supermarket (60 percent), followed 

by medical services (50 percent). The most 

Eligibility and the Residential Waiting 

sought-after features in a new community 

List

were good housing quality, opportunity to 

grow things, less crime and fewer safety 

DHHL reported that it cycles through the 

concerns, and more affordable housing, 

waiting lists every few years, as lots are 

all mentioned by more than three-fourths 

completed, but most people do not assume 

of respondents. Further, most households 

a lease when their name moves to the top 

cited the importance of personal ties when 

of the list. Applicants’ reasons (as reported 

asked about whether certain reasons were 

to DHHL) for turning down a lease offer 

important to them for wanting to live in a 

included that they did not qualify for a loan 

particular community. More than 60 percent 

for a turnkey offering, were not interested in 

of households on the waiting list said that 

the lot available, were waiting for property 

having family and friends in a community, 

in a specific area, believed they were too old 

having always lived in a community or 

to take on a mortgage, or were living on the 

having historic ties there, or the ability to 

mainland and were not ready to return to 

be an active member in the community as 

Hawaii. Individuals may also be on the list for 

either very important or important in their 

a long time if they want leases for each of 

choice of community. Further, 72 percent 

their children, who have less than 50 percent 

of the respondents listed the availability of 

blood quantum. Because people can be on 

government subsidies or assistance as very 

the waiting list for only one residential lease 

important or important. 

at a time, additional leases that they wish 

to transfer require them to go through the 

Current DHHL Policies and 

process again,50 with no guarantee they will 

Implications 

be offered another lease due to constraints 

imposed by DHHL’s rules. Other stakeholders 

Within DHHL, the Land Development 

in addition to DHHL staff also noted that 

Division, Homestead Services Division, and 

households on the waiting list cycle through 

HALE Program manage the waiting list and 

the waiting list because they face barriers 

50  The home lands have three types of leases: (1) residential (for a home to live in), (2) agricultural (for farming), and (3) pastoral (for ranch-ing). Each individual may be on up to two waiting lists at a time, residential and agricultural or residential and pastoral, and may receive only one lot at a time. After receiving a lot, the individual may return to the waiting list, although the rules place conditions and restrictions on his or her ability to receive another residential lease (see Hawaii Administrative Rules 10-3-7 and 10-3-23).

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

to securing the necessary loan, such as 

need to be reassessed to reflect this reality, 

insufficient downpayment, poor credit history, 

so that Native Hawaiians can continue to 

or insufficient income. Several stakeholders 

benefit from the Hawaiian home lands. Other 

reported that some people on the waiting 

stakeholders disagreed that this was an issue. 

list never intend to take a lot but remain on 

DHHL has not seen any decline in the rate of 

the list because it is perceived to have status 

applications or leases. No data exist on the 

associated with it. A common misperception 

blood quantum or degree of ancestry among 

is that the waiting list does not move or that 

Native Hawaiians, so it is difficult to assess 

people are “passed over” for leases. 

the concern about this issue. 

These trends were confirmed in the survey 

DHHL Prioritization of Turnkey 

of households on the waiting list. About 

Development

55 percent of households had received an 

offer for a lease award from DHHL. Of those, 

In previous years, DHHL prioritized 

about 65 percent had received one to five 

turnkey developments in preference to 

offers, and 35 percent had received more 

owner-build and other developments. 

than five offers. The most common reasons 

To some stakeholders, DHHL’s focus on 

for not accepting an offer included not liking 

building turnkey developments as the 

the location (46 percent), not thinking they 

primary mechanism for making leases 

would qualify for the loan (32 percent), and 

was problematic because they believed 

not being able to relocate (11 percent). 

this practice made it harder for low- to 

moderate-income HHCA beneficiaries to 

Several stakeholders also thought that 

have a lease on the Hawaiian home lands 

some HHCA beneficiaries do not put 

due to the higher cost of those homes. As 

themselves on the waiting list because of 

one stakeholder commented, “When your 

misperceptions about the trust’s intended 

name comes up, you used to get a lot, but 

beneficiaries. These stakeholders mentioned 

now you have to be able to build or buy 

that people have a common perception that 

on the lot.” DHHL’s shift to more expensive 

the trust is meant to or should benefit low-

housing development may have exacerbated 

income people or those who do not already 

the problem of people staying on the 

own a house. If this misperception changed 

waiting list for extended periods of time. 

and these people joined the waiting list, 

stakeholders estimated the waiting list 

According to DHHL, the department’s 

would be much longer. 

earlier focus on turnkey developments was 

based, in part, on the need to efficiently and 

Some stakeholders anticipated potential 

expeditiously manage the homebuilding 

eligibility issues in the near future related 

and awards process and DHHL’s previous 

to the blood quantum requirement; other 

experience with owner-build and self-help 

stakeholders felt strongly that this was 

awards. In the past, DHHL opened up lots 

not an issue. Some stakeholders worried 

and communities using an owner-build or 

that, if trends of greater growth among the 

self-help model in which the owner was 

multiracial Native Hawaiian population persist, 

responsible for building a home within a 

as time passes, fewer Native Hawaiians will 

certain period of time. Some of the homes 

meet the 50 percent requirement for lease 

being completed had issues with long 

eligibility and the 25 percent requirement 

delays because of lack of access to capital, 

for successorship. They were of the opinion 

unexpected costs, builder scams, and other 

that eligibility requirements eventually would 

factors, leaving unimproved or partially 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

improved lots in communities that were 

location and steep or rocky terrain. Even 

otherwise complete. Stakeholders thought 

when these challenges do not make 

some self-help projects had failed because 

development impossible, they increase 

the planning and construction effort lacked 

development costs. Some stakeholders 

sufficient structure, and consequently some 

believed that the lack of easily developable 

lessees’ homes were not built. DHHL tries 

land contributed to the lack of affordable 

to enforce leases if the lessees violate the 

products provided by DHHL. DHHL 

lease by not building or using unapproved 

purchases and exchanges trust land with 

housing like buses, but it is reluctant to 

other owners, but this practice is difficult 

start the lease cancellation process because 

when the land it has available for exchange 

it ultimately wants the lots developed and 

is considered undesirable. Land-quality 

for people to be housed. In addition, the 

issues limit DHHL’s development activities, 

lease cancellation process is expensive 

which contributes to the perception that 

and time consuming, because finding the 

DHHL is not making enough leases and 

lessees can be challenging and requires a 

homes available to HHCA beneficiaries. 

public notice process.

Aligning Development To Target 

Despite challenges related to undeveloped 

Population Needs and Preferences

lots and varied construction quality, 

several stakeholders emphasized that 

One of the most common critiques of 

people need to have options other 

DHHL’s approach to housing development 

than contractor-built homes. Although 

is that it does not meet the needs of its 

stakeholders noted that some lessees, 

target population, including financial 

likely those who are older or otherwise 

capacity, life-cycle changes, and cultural 

unable to build their own home, will prefer 

preferences. Some stakeholders emphasized 

the contractor model; others have skills 

the mismatch between the price of DHHL 

that facilitate building a home that meets 

homes and the disproportionately lower-

their needs in their price point without 

income population that DHHL serves. 

a contractor. They also emphasized that 

Stakeholders explained that many DHHL 

people need more time to build because 

homes have sales prices in the $200,000-

some will be building slowly as they have 

to-$300,000 or higher range, which low- 

the money. Self-help homes were reported 

and moderate-income Native Hawaiians 

to be very affordable, with a mortgage 

cannot afford. 

at completion for a three-bedroom, two-

Stakeholders suggested using package 

bathroom home at about $70,000.51 

homes, manufactured homes, and container 

Developable Land

homes to bring down housing prices on 

Hawaiian home lands. Package homes 

One issue that DHHL contends with is the 

are packages with the plans and materials 

quality of the land. DHHL reported that 

needed to build a home that can be put 

much of the undeveloped land in the trust 

up by a contractor or even a homeowner. 

is undevelopable for residential purposes 

DHHL reported that it is possible to get 

because of its remote or inaccessible 

an assembled package home for about 

$150,000. By comparison, the least 

51  DHHL reported that it is has recently reviewed its lot offerings and adjusted the options to include a much larger number of vacant lots for applicants interested in an owner-build option or a self-help option. Stakeholder interviews were conducted in July 2014, before DHHL 

made these changes. 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

expensive turnkey home is about $230,000. 

•  One Oahu homestead community included 

Package homes are considered a good 

111 turnkey homes, 70 rentals with option to 

option for lower-income owner-builders. 

purchase, and 45 self-help homes. 

Stakeholders mentioned they would buy 

the packages in bulk and release them 

•  DHHL also supported the development 

as needed to further contain costs to 

of rental housing on Nanakuli, an existing 

lessees. Stakeholders also suggested other 

homestead. The 48-unit building has 

types of manufactured or modular homes 

one- to three-bedroom units and is 

and container homes. Although some 

on property leased to the homestead 

stakeholders also mentioned mobile homes, 

association and developed and managed 

which can be an affordable type of housing, 

by the association’s partner organizations. 

no mobile homes are manufactured on the 

It targets low-income tenants by setting 

islands, and shipping from the mainland can 

pricing at 30 percent of the tenant’s 

be cost prohibitive. To assist with financing, 

income. The rental housing is attached 

DHHL recently rolled out a new “package 

to a community center and has services 

home” financial product using NAHASDA 

nearby. This project, the first of its kind, 

funds for NAHASDA-eligible lessees with 

was financed by the U.S. Department of 

vacant lots that are owner-build (with a 

Agriculture, a Community Development 

licensed contractor). 

Block Grant (CDBG), and low-income 

housing tax credits on land leased from 

Most of the key stakeholders interviewed 

DHHL at a very low rate. Because the 

suggested the rental model as a strategy 

project used CDBG and other federal 

to better meet the needs of some lower-

funding, however, occupancy could not be 

income Native Hawaiians. Providing rental 

restricted to Native Hawaiians.

units is a challenge for DHHL because 

it does not take people off the waiting 

•  Another model on Waimanalo homestead 

list for a homestead lease, its central 

provides affordable rentals for elderly 

mission. Further, Native Hawaiians prefer 

Native Hawaiians on land leased from 

homeownership over rental. Stakeholders 

DHHL. The 81-unit development is fully 

also suggested that some kind of affordable 

rented and has a waiting list. The rental 

or below-market rental transitional housing 

units are owned and managed by a 

would be useful while people are waiting for 

nonprofit organization. One challenge 

a lease or preparing to qualify for a lease. 

with senior housing is an observed 

One stakeholder suggested that NAHASDA 

tendency for other family members to 

money specifically could support rentals for 

move into the senior rental unit, resulting 

HHCA beneficiaries with incomes between 

in overcrowding and violating the 

50 and 80 percent or less than 50 percent 

terms of the leases, which restrict the 

of the Area Median Income (AMI). 

community by residents’ age, except in 

certain limited circumstances. 

DHHL is piloting approaches to rental 

housing and favors a rent with an option to 

Although Native Hawaiians tend to prefer 

purchase arrangement, because it would 

larger homes that accommodate extended 

ultimately get people off the waiting list. A 

families and have outdoor gathering spaces, 

few examples of recent projects show that 

some stakeholders observed that DHHL 

DHHL has begun to implement this approach 

is building homes on increasingly smaller 

to expand residential homesteading 

lots with limited space for parking, outdoor 

opportunities in new directions. 

gathering areas, and room for expansion. 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

Some stakeholders also argued that DHHL 

on reservations and other tribal areas. DHHL 

should build a range of different types of 

is the major developer of affordable housing 

units to better accommodate people at 

that specifically targets Native Hawaiians.

different stages of their lives (for example, 

singles, couples with children, and seniors). 

According to their  2014 Annual 

For example, one stakeholder suggested 

Performance Report (DHHL, 2014a), DHHL 

that single adults might prefer condos, 

has used or is planning to use these funds 

townhomes, or apartments, rather than 

for eligible housing-related activities, 

single-family detached homes. To better 

including the following.

understand these needs, stakeholders 

•  Acquiring real property (land or existing 

suggested that DHHL should include an 

housing units) to add to the inventory of 

advisory group of HHCA beneficiaries 

affordable housing for Native Hawaiians.

throughout the planning process for a new 

development, so that DHHL can include 

•  Capitalizing a revolving loan fund for 

this type of input in its decisionmaking. The 

purpose of homeownership among 

survey of households on the waiting list 

NAHASDA-eligible Native Hawaiian 

suggests (as noted previously) that most 

households.

households actually prefer a single-family 

•  Providing financial assistance to qualified 

detached home. 

prospective homeowners (for example, 

Role of the Native Hawaiian 

through downpayment assistance, funding 

Housing Block Grant and the Native 

of individual development accounts, low 

American Housing Assistance and 

interest-rate loans, and other products).

Self-Determination Act

•  Increasing alternative energy resources 

or other programs for eligible Native 

In addition to managing the Hawaiian 

Hawaiian households.

Home Lands program for homesteading 

opportunities by HHCA beneficiaries, 

•  Reducing the number of homes in need 

DHHL also administers federal grant 

of repair or replacement or to relieve 

funding provided through NHHBG, which is 

overcrowding in homes occupied by low-

authorized by an amendment to NAHASDA. 

income Native Hawaiian households.

These funds can be spent only on the 

Hawaiian home lands. NHHBG has been an 

•  Developing educational and training 

important funding mechanism for DHHL 

programs to address financial, home 

in developing housing and infrastructure 

repair, or home maintenance needs in 

on Hawaiian home lands. DHHL is the only 

eligible Native Hawaiian households.

designated recipient of NHHBG funds, and 

•  Subgranting funds to support self-

their use is restricted to HHCA beneficiaries 

help home repair, energy retrofits, 

whose total household income is at or less 

homeownership counseling, and individual 

than 80 percent of the established AMI 

development accounts.

levels for their respective counties and 

who have, or have been offered, a lease on 

•  Developing infrastructure. 

the home lands. Native Hawaiians have no 

equivalent of the TDHEs that receive HUD 

•  Funding staff positions to administer 

funds and administer HUD programs for 

the program.

American Indians and Alaska Natives living 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

During stakeholder interviews, DHHL 

•  Model activities grants. DHHL uses 

staff highlighted a number of ways 

NHHBG funds to make grants to local 

they use NHHBG funds, including 

public entities; nonprofit organizations, 

capital improvement, environmental 

including homestead organizations; and 

assessments, mortgage and home-repair 

for-profit corporations for activities that 

loan financing, loss mitigation, and grants 

address a wide variety of needs, including 

for model activities.

public safety needs, organizational needs, 

other model activities (such as community 

•  Capital improvement. NHHBG funds 

policing), and activities that incorporate 

are used to subsidize infrastructure 

educational, cultural, and recreational 

development on previously undeveloped 

activities for affordable-housing residents. 

Hawaiian home lands. Lessees do not pay 

The minimum grant size is $10,000, 

the costs to install basic infrastructure 

and the grant has no maximum and no 

(for example, hookups to water, 

matching requirements, except when 

electricity, sewer). When the lessee 

funds are used for activities within 

meets the 80 percent AMI requirement, 

communities. The activities must serve 

these costs are paid for using NHHBG 

households who meet NAHASDA’s 80 

funds; when the lessee’s income is more 

percent of AMI guideline.

than 80 percent AMI, the costs are 

absorbed by trust funds. 

NHHBG Challenges 

•  Environmental assessments. NHHBG 

DHHL staff reported that the NHHBG works 

funds are also used to pay for 

well overall and produces good outcomes 

environmental assessments used in 

with what they have used. DHHL and other 

planning. DHHL reported that $1.5 million 

stakeholders did mention several challenges. 

is currently allocated for this purpose.

One challenge is the Davis-Bacon Act 

•  Direct loans and home repair loans. 

wage rate requirement. Because NHHBG 

DHHL uses NHHBG to fund its direct 

is a federal funding stream, DHHL must 

loan program and its home-repair loan 

pay prevailing wages as determined by 

program. These programs are discussed 

the Davis-Bacon Act wage requirements, 

in more detail in the subsection regarding 

including for self-built units. Although 

mortgage access. 

American Indian and Alaska Native tribes 

on the continental United States can 

•  Loss mitigation. DHHL uses NHHBG to 

apply their own prevailing wage rates in 

fund its HALE Program, which works with 

lieu of the federal ones, DHHL does not 

lessees to refinance their loans down to 

have this authority. Stakeholders noted 

4.5 percent. As a condition of receiving 

that the prevailing wage rates are often 

NHHBG assistance, lessees participate 

higher than market or labor union wage 

in financial training. DHHL staff have 

rates, increasing the cost of labor. They 

counseling experience and provide 

argued that this policy increases the cost 

direct assistance to lessees. DHHL also 

of housing. One Habitat for Humanity 

has contracts with five HUD-certified 

affiliate also said that the contractors they 

counseling agencies to provide financial 

use are willing to offer lower labor costs 

education and training. 

because they are committed to serving the 

lower-income population (and can charge 

higher rates on major developments), but 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

they are not allowed to do so on federally 

and inefficiencies get in the way of serving 

funded projects due to the Davis-Bacon 

the people and often lead to decisions that 

Act requirement. Volunteer labor defrays 

are not in the best interest of the people. 

the cost, but only for construction, because 

This perception is very much linked to 

any of the licensed work has to be done 

a perception that politics and changing 

by licensed contractors at the prevailing 

administrations “get in the way of serving 

wage. Stakeholders suggested that an 

the people.” The appointees in the top 

exclusion to Davis-Bacon Act requirements 

positions change every 2 to 4 years, which 

for projects of a small size (for example, 

can change departmental priorities, staff, 

fewer than 10 units, minor repairs, less than 

policies, and internal processes and create 

a specific percentage amount) would be 

disruption in programs and services for 

helpful. Another suggestion was to exclude 

beneficiaries. An alternative proposed 

small contractors or allow small contractors 

by two service providers was for one or 

to make the decision on a project-by-

more community-based organizations or 

project basis.

community development corporations 

to serve as the equivalent of the TDHE 

Stakeholders also noted two other 

in Hawaii, because they have strong 

challenges related to federal regulations. 

connections to the beneficiary base in 

First, stakeholders identified the requirement 

the community and do not have the same 

for federally required environmental reviews, 

limitations as a state agency. A small 

which are perceived to be burdensome 

number of other stakeholders expressed 

and the source of major delays in housing 

dissatisfaction with DHHL because it has 

development. Second, a few stakeholders 

not spent down its NHHBG funds enough. 

also thought that the method of qualifying 

One stakeholder was concerned that the 

beneficiaries for NAHASDA assistance based 

unspent money sends the wrong message to 

on income is not flexible enough because it 

Congress by implying that Native Hawaiians 

does not allow for adjustments to income. 

do not need housing funds. 

A few stakeholders said they thought 

However, discussions with DHHL indicate 

that using DHHL as the administrator of 

that there was a period during which 

NAHASDA funding is a limitation. Some 

spending was delayed due to changes in 

stakeholders explained that DHHL limits the 

administration and associated staff turnover 

eligibility for the grant, because it serves 

and that further delays were caused by the 

only the population that is 50 percent or 

process of coming into compliance with 

more Native Hawaiian. One stakeholder 

federal regulations required at that time.

said, “The majority of people now are less 

than 50 percent and they need housing just 

DHHL Funding Limitations 

as bad as anybody else.” A suggestion for 

changing this was to allow NAHASDA funds 

Although it gets some additional funding for 

to be used to benefit anyone who is any part 

its operations through principal interest on 

Native Hawaiian or who self-identifies as 

loans, home sales, nonhomestead income-

Native Hawaiian.

generating leases, and its water system, 

DHHL is experiencing significant budget 

A few stakeholders also mentioned the 

cuts from NHHBG and other important 

bureaucratic and political nature of state 

funding streams. In the President’s Fiscal 

agencies as a limitation. These stakeholders 

Year (FY) 2016 Budget to Congress, the 

have a perception that agency processes 

NHHBG budget request was zero; the FY 

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

2015 Omnibus Appropriations Bill funded 

that DHHL does not need to use or rely on 

this program at $9 million. This elimination in 

revenue directly or indirectly from general 

funding will likely have a significant impact 

leases to pay for these expenses. The 

on DHHL’s ability to carry out its mission.

Court’s most recent decision, in February 

2016, requires the State to fund DHHL’s 

DHHL does not always receive an 

administrative and operating expenses by 

appropriation of general funds from 

making sufficient general funds available 

the State to cover administrative and 

to DHHL for its administrative and 

operational expenses. DHHL did secure 

operating budget for FY 2015–2016 and to 

an appropriation for FY 2013, its first since 

prospectively fulfill its constitutional duties 

2010 (DHHL, 2014b). Funding for DHHL has 

and trust responsibilities. Although it is not 

been the subject of a longstanding lawsuit 

clear what the legislature and governor 

Nelson  v . Hawaiian Homes Commission.52 

will do next, they will likely face renewed 

In 2007, plaintiffs, beneficiaries of HHCA, 

pressure to increase DHHL’s funding. 

filed suit against the State of Hawaii and 

the Hawaiian Homes Commission for failing 

Another major source of funding used to 

to adequately fund DHHL as mandated by 

develop housing ended in 2015. A $600 

the Hawaii constitution. In November 2015, 

million land settlement reached with the 

the Hawaii Supreme Court concluded that 

State in 1995 has been paid to DHHL in 

the State failed to meet its constitutional 

increments of $30 million per year during 

obligation to provide sufficient sums for 

the past 20 years. These funds have 

the DHHL’s administrative and operating 

been used to subsidize the development 

budget and ordered the State of Hawaii to 

of homesteads and infrastructure on 

fulfill its constitutional duty by appropriating 

homesteads for families that do not qualify 

sufficient general funds to the DHHL for 

for assistance under NAHASDA.

its administrative and operating budget so 

52  http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Nelson-Case-Summary.pdf.

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Section 7. Conclusions

Section 7. Conclusions

Native Hawaiian population in the state 

of Hawaii grew at twice the rate of the 

state’s population overall, all the increase 

occurred in the group that identified as 

Overall, the Native Hawaiian population 

Native Hawaiian in combination with another 

faces greater levels of disadvantage 

race. The pattern of growth for the total 

than does the other residents of Hawaii 

population across the counties in Hawaii has 

population, and HHCA beneficiaries on the 

shifted over time in response to policies to 

waiting list for homestead leases on the 

slow development in Honolulu County. 

Hawaiian home lands face even greater 

challenges. By contrast, those currently 

The Native Hawaiian population tends to be 

living on the Hawaiian home lands appear 

more disadvantaged than does the residents 

to have higher incomes and significantly 

of Hawaii population. The Native Hawaiian 

lower rates of affordability problems. This 

population is younger, with larger shares of 

situation could be due in part to the ability 

children and smaller shares of seniors than 

of financially better-off Hawaiian Homes 

is the residents of Hawaii population, and 

Commission Act (HHCA) beneficiaries to 

Native Hawaiian households are larger than 

assume leases more often because they are 

residents of Hawaii households. Although 

able to obtain the necessary loan and the 

improvements were made in the decade 

inability of those who are worse off to obtain 

from 2000 to 2010, Native Hawaiians 

loans, requiring them to stay on the waiting 

continue to have lower incomes, higher rates 

list. The evidence also suggests the benefits 

of means-tested public assistance receipt, 

of home lands housing and supports 

and higher poverty rates than do residents 

continuous and increased NHHBG and other 

of Hawaii. Furthermore, Native Hawaiians 

funding to support infrastructure, housing 

were disproportionately hurt by the Great 

development, and housing assistance for 

Recession. From 2008 to 2011, the economic 

low-income HHCA beneficiaries. This section 

conditions for Native Hawaiians worsened 

reviews the main descriptive findings on 

across all the indicators examined, increasing 

the overall Native Hawaiian population and 

the burden of their employment, income, 

HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for a 

and poverty challenges.

homestead lease, reviews Native American 

Housing Assistance and Self-Determination 

Despite housing stock growth that has 

Act (NAHASDA)-related policy issues, and 

kept pace with the United States overall, 

estimates the need for Native Hawaiian 

households in Hawaii continue to face a 

Housing Block Grant (NHHBG) assistance. 

tight rental market and high housing costs. 

Within the state, Honolulu County saw 

The Native Hawaiian Population in 

the least new development, reflecting the 

Hawaii

state’s development priorities in these areas. 

Vacancy rates among units available for 

Recent decades have seen important 

permanent residences in Hawaii are similar 

changes in the Native Hawaiian population 

to rates in the United States overall for 

and its distribution across Hawaii. 

homeowner units and are lower for rental 

Relatively fast growth of the Native 

units, suggesting a tighter rental market. The 

Hawaiian population and disproportionate 

cost of living in Hawaii is high, and residents 

growth across counties suggest changing 

face high rents and utility costs. Native 

socioeconomic profiles and housing 

Hawaiians are more burdened by these 

needs now and in the future. Although the 

issues because they have disproportionately 

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Section 7. Conclusions

low incomes. The cost of homeownership 

Many (63 percent) renters on the waiting 

in Hawaii is high. Although housing is less 

list who would prefer to own a home are 

expensive on the Hawaiian home lands, 

unable to do so, because they cannot afford 

it is still not affordable for many HHCA 

a downpayment or save enough money for 

beneficiaries eligible for NAHASDA, in part 

a house. Although the survey sample was 

because infrastructure and development 

drawn from all waiting list applicants and 

costs in some areas of the Hawaiian home 

was not limited to NAHASDA-eligible Native 

lands are high. 

Hawaiians (those at less than 80 percent 

of the Area Median Income), the research 

It appears that one way Native Hawaiians 

team estimated that about one-half of this 

have approached these challenges is by 

population had incomes that would qualify 

having larger households and potentially 

for NAHASDA assistance. This study used 

more multiple or extended family 

this information to conclude that a need 

arrangements. Lower personal income 

for NAHASDA funds exists to support 

may be masked at the household level by 

downpayment assistance, credit counseling, 

pooling of incomes from multiple household 

and homebuyer education and also the 

members, leading to overcrowding. This 

development of larger homes suited to the 

study’s findings on housing problems 

household sizes of this population. 

support this possibility. The biggest housing 

problems experienced by Native Hawaiian 

NAHASDA Assistance on the 

households were overcrowding and 

Hawaiian Home Lands

affordability. Native Hawaiian households 

were nearly twice as likely as other residents 

Regarding support for Native Hawaiian 

of Hawaii households to have problems with 

housing under NAHASDA, Hawaii is a 

overcrowding and severe overcrowding.

unique case. Although Congress has 

repeatedly acknowledged its special 

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian 

political and trust relationship with the 

Home Lands Waiting List 

Native Hawaiian community since the 

overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii more 

Overall, the analyses conducted for this 

than a century ago, the federal government 

study showed that households on the 

does not maintain a formal government-

waiting list for a homestead lease tend to be 

to-government relationship with the Native 

most demographically similar to Hawaiian 

Hawaiian community as an organized, 

home lands households, but households on 

sovereign entity. Further, no single agency 

the waiting list experience the highest rates 

in Hawaii is responsible for housing for 

of disadvantage and housing problems. 

Native Hawaiians, unlike tribally designated 

Households on the waiting list have 

housing entities (TDHEs) or tribal housing 

substantially lower incomes and receive 

departments that operate housing programs 

public cash assistance at much higher rates 

in most American Indian and Alaska 

than do households on Hawaiian home lands,  Native communities. The lack of a TDHE or Native Hawaiian households, and residents 

TDHE equivalent also limits flexibility and 

of Hawaii households. Households on the 

autonomy, such as in determination of the 

waiting list also experience all types of 

State of Hawaii Department of Hawaiian 

housing problems at higher rates than do 

Home Lands’ (DHHL’s) own prevailing wage 

households on Hawaiian home lands, Native 

rate rather than the standard Davis-Bacon 

Hawaiian households, and residents of Hawaii  Act prevailing wage.

households. 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Section 7. Conclusions

Because NAHASDA assistance for Native 

eligibility criteria and supports continuous 

Hawaiians through NHHBG is limited to low-

and increased funding to support 

income HHCA beneficiary households on 

infrastructure, housing development, 

the Hawaiian home lands, the assistance is 

and housing assistance for low-income 

subject to additional eligibility requirements 

HHCA beneficiaries. At the same time, the 

that limit the program’s reach. As a State 

significant housing challenges that all Native 

agency and the only recipient of the 

Hawaiians in the state face raise the question 

NAHASDA funds in Hawaii, DHHL can 

of whether NHHBG assistance should be 

provide homestead leases and housing 

limited to the Hawaiian home lands. 

assistance to only those Native Hawaiians 

eligible for housing on the Hawaiian home 

For context, the research team estimated 

lands under the HHCA definition, which 

roughly the proportion of the Native 

requires that beneficiaries be at least 50 

Hawaiian population that could potentially 

percent Native Hawaiian. NHHBG currently 

be eligible for housing on the Hawaiian home 

cannot be used to assist otherwise eligible 

lands under current law. 

Native Hawaiian families with housing 

As shown in exhibit 7.1, the number of 

assistance outside the Hawaiian home 

households on the waiting list plus the 

lands.  Native Hawaiians who are ineligible 

number of households already on the 

for homestead leases must seek assistance 

home lands yields an estimate of 20,500 

through housing assistance programs 

households eligible for a home lands lease, 

serving all residents of Hawaii, like the 

or approximately 30 percent of all Native 

Housing Choice Voucher program, which has  Hawaiian households in Hawaii.

closed waiting lists throughout the state. 

To estimate the number of Native Hawaiian 

Estimating the Need for NHHBG 

households eligible for NHHBG assistance 

Assistance

that are not being supported, the research 

team estimates that about half of the 14,350 

Native Hawaiians living on the Hawaiian 

(or 7,175) households on the DHHL waiting 

home lands are better off than other 

list have incomes below 80 percent of AMI 

Native Hawaiians, particularly regarding 

and therefore could qualify for NHHBG 

affordability; those on the waiting list 

assistance.53 These estimates suggest a need 

struggle the most with affordability 

to consider ways to expand assistance to 

problems. This evidence suggests a clear 

more HHCA beneficiaries and also to assist 

advantage of housing on the Hawaiian 

those not served by the NHHBG. 

home lands for those who meet the 

53  This estimate is an approximation, because some households reside on the home lands and are also on the waiting list, which may result in an overestimate. This calculation does not include an estimate of households that are eligible for the home lands but did not apply for a lease on the home lands and are not on the waiting list, which may result in an underestimate.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Exhibit 7.1. Native Hawaiian Households Potentially Eligible for NAHASDA Assistance State of 

Hawaii 

Honolulu 

Kauai 

Maui County

Kalawao 

Hawai  Total

County

County

County

County

Total Native Hawaiian households 

69,330

13,957

42,261

3,856

9,221

35

Native Hawaiian alone

22,755

4,917

12,950

1,476

3,385

27

Native Hawaiian multiracial

46,575

9,040

29,311

2,380

5,836

8

Native Hawaiian households on the Hawaiian 

6,150

1,305

3,203

490

1,152

home lands

Native Hawaiian alone

3,377

745

1,723

288

621

Native Hawaiian in multiracial

2,773

560

1,480

202

531

Native Hawaiian households on waiting list

14,350

2,986

8,423

782

2,159

Percent of households on Hawaiian home 

8.9

9.4

7.6

12.7

12.5

lands—all Native Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian alone

14.8

15.2

13.3

19.5

18.3

Native Hawaiian multiracial 

6.0

6.2

5.0

8.5

9.1

Percent of households on waiting list—all Native 

20.7

21.4

19.9

20.3

23.4

Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian alone

63.1

60.7

65.00

53.00

63.8

Native Hawaiian multiracial

30.8

33.0

28.7

32.9

                37.00

Total potentially served by NAHASDA

29.6

NAHASDA = Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act of 1996.

Notes: Kalawao County population numbers are calculated by subtracting census totals for other counties from the State of Hawaii census numbers. Household counts for the Hawaiian home lands include the 27 most populous home lands, the only ones for which data on the number of Native Hawaiian-headed households were available. Because data are unavailable due to their small size, we cannot include household counts for the remaining 27 inhabited home lands. However, because these home lands are only home to 3 percent of the total home lands population, this issue does not affect our overall conclusions by a significant amount. Waiting list numbers include only applicants for residential homesteads who were deemed eligible for the survey, which excludes those who live on the mainland, have invalid addresses, are deceased, or are applicants who have not yet provided full documentation indicating Native Hawaiian status.

Sources: decennial census 2010 for all population numbers except waiting list; DHHL for waiting list numbers as of 2013 (the time that the sampling frame was defined for the household survey)

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Glossary

Glossary

HHCA beneficiary: A person with a Native 

Hawaiian blood quantum of at least 50 

percent. Further defined in PL 104-42, the 

beneficiary: 

term has “the same meaning as is given 

See  HHCA beneficiary.  

the term native Hawaiian under section 

condotel: A privately owned property, with 

201(7) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission 

generally small units (up to three bedrooms) 

Act.” HHCA beneficiaries include both 

built in multifamily style that share common 

HHCA lessees and those HHCA beneficiary 

amenities and a paid third-party management  households that are on the waiting list. 

firm that provides services for the property 

HHCA lessee: A person who is one of the 

in the manner of a hotel (for example, 

following.

facilitating short-term rentals, housekeeping, 

maintenance). Most major hotel brands have 

•  An HHCA beneficiary who has been 

entered the condotel market. Villas and 

awarded a lease under section 207(a) of 

other free-standing residences in the same 

the HHCA.

arrangement are often called “fractionals” 

(Bradley-Hole, 2007).

•  A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 

25 percent or more) to whom land has 

GED: general education development. 

been transferred under section 208 of the 

General education development tests are 

HHCA.

a group of four subject tests which, when 

passed, provide certification that the test 

•  A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 

taker has achieved American or Canadian 

percent or more) successor lessee under 

high school-level academic skills.

section 209 of the HHCA.

HALE Program: Established in 2014 by the 

homeowners association (HOA): A 

Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, this 

homeowners association; a corporation 

program aids beneficiaries with financial 

formed by a real estate developer for the 

literacy services. HALE currently offers 

purpose of marketing, managing, and selling 

two types of services for beneficiaries: 

homes and lots in a residential subdivision. 

(1) homebuyer education classes and (2) 

Ownership of the association is transferred 

foreclosure prevention management.  HALE 

to the homeowners after selling off a 

means “house” in ōlelo Hawai’i.

predetermined number of lots. Membership 

in the HOA by a residential buyer is typically 

Hawaiian home lands homestead 

a condition of purchase.

association: A beneficiary-controlled 

organization that represents and serves the 

lessee: See  HHCA lessee.

interests of its homestead community and 

low-income housing tax credit (LIHTC): 

has as a stated purpose the representation 

Low-income housing tax credit. Created 

of and provision of services to its homestead  by the Tax Reform Act of 1986, the LIHTC 

community.

Program gives state and local LIHTC-

Hawaiian Homes Commission Act (HHCA): 

allocating agencies the equivalent of nearly 

Section 201 of HHCA states that “Native 

$8 billion in annual budget authority to issue 

Hawai an means any descendant of not less than  tax credits for the acquisition, rehabilitation, one-half part of the blood of the races inhabiting  or new construction of rental housing the Hawai an Islands previous to 1778.”

targeted to lower-income households.

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Glossary

Native American Housing Assistance and 

definition that includes any U.S. citizen 

Self-Determination Act (NAHASDA): Native  who descends from the aboriginal people American Housing Assistance and Self-who, before 1778, occupied and exercised 

Determination Act. Signed on October 26, 

sovereignty in the area that now constitutes 

1996, this act replaced myriad programs 

the State of Hawaii (U.S. Department of the 

that previously had provided housing 

Interior, 2015). 

assistance to Native American tribes under 

the U.S. Housing Act of 1937 with a block 

Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant 

grant that allowed tribes or their tribally 

program (NHHBG): Native Hawaiian 

designated housing entities (also called 

Housing Block Grant program (authorized 

TDHEs) more flexibility to decide whom 

by an amendment to NAHASDA) through 

to serve, what services to offer, and how 

which the HHCA beneficiaries receive 

to deliver programs and services. As with 

federal housing funds. 

the 1937 Act, under NAHASDA, tribes 

Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA): A public 

are still required to primarily serve low-

agency of the State of Hawaii responsible 

income households. The income-eligible 

for improving the well-being of Native 

population of Native Hawaiian HHCA 

Hawaiians; has three overarching objectives: 

beneficiaries receives federal housing funds 

(1) advocacy to improve the conditions 

through the Native Hawaiian Housing Block 

of Native Hawaiians in the areas of land, 

Grant program, which is authorized by an 

culture, economic self-sufficiency, education, 

amendment NAHASDA. 

governance, and health through research 

Native Hawaiian: Individuals who self-

and policy activities; (2) providing resources 

identified on the U.S. census as Hawaiian 

to support improving conditions for Native 

as their only race (termed Native Hawaiian 

Hawaiians, including scholarships, loans (for 

alone) and those who identified as being 

example, business, home improvement and 

Native Hawaiian and at least one other race 

repair, debt consolidation, and continuing 

(termed Native Hawaiian in combination 

education), and grants to community-

in the U.S. Census and Native Hawaiian 

based organizations that support the focus 

multiracial in this report). A lower case “n” 

of the strategic plan; and (3) facilitating 

(“native Hawaiian) is sometimes used refer 

collaboration across the islands to help 

to the subset of all Native Hawaiians who 

achieve broad, lasting change in the 

meet the blood quantum requirements set 

Hawaiian community. The agency receives 

out in the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act 

some funding from the State legislature, 

and defined for purposes of eligibility for 

but much comes from land revenues (for 

homestead leases, as “any descendant of 

example, rental of trust lands).

not less than one-half part of the blood of 

other family arrangement: A category 

the races inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands 

defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as male- 

previous to 1778.” In this report, the term 

or female-headed households without 

HHCA beneficiary is used rather than native 

children under age 18 (Pettit et al., 2014).

Hawaiian.

residents of Hawaii: In this report, those 

Native Hawaiian community: Congress 

who live in the state of Hawaii but who do 

uses two approaches to defining the Native 

not identify as Native Hawaiian. In general 

Hawaiian community (see previous glossary 

parlance, people who live in Hawaii or who 

entry)—the definition that is used in HHCA 

come from Hawaii are not all referred to 

(and is used in this report) and a broader 

as  Hawaiian. The term  Hawaiian is used 

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE 

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Glossary

to describe members of the ethnic group 

tribally designated housing entity 

indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands.  Hawaii 

(TDHE): Tribally designated housing entity 

resident or  islander describes anyone who 

designated by each tribe that is responsible 

lives in the state (Section 3, Definitions, of 

for administering its housing assistance 

Senate Bill No. 147, March 2005, sponsored 

program that is funded by the federal 

by Senator Daniel Akaka).

government.

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List of Acronyms

List of Acronyms

ACS: American Community Survey

AMI: Area Median Income

CDBG: Community Development Block 

Grant

CDC: Community Development Corporation

DHHL: Department of Hawaiian Home 

Lands

HHCA: Hawaiian Homes Commission Act

HOA: Home Owners Association

HUD: U.S. Department of Housing and 

Urban Development.

LIHTC: Low-income housing tax credit

NAHASDA: Native American Housing 

Assistance and Self-Determination Act

NHHBG: Native Hawaiian Housing Block 

Grant

PUMS: Public Use Microdata Sample 

(census).

SNAP: Supplemental Nutrition Assistance 

Program, formerly called the Food Stamp 

Program.

TANF: Temporary Assistance for Needy 

Families.

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U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Policy Development and Research

Washington, DC 20410-6000

May 2017

Document Outline

List of Acronyms

Glossary

Section 7. Conclusions

The Native Hawaiian Population in Hawaii

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List 

NAHASDA Assistance on the Hawaiian Home Lands

Estimating the Need for NHHBG Assistance

Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

Key Findings

Hawaiian Home Lands Assistance

Role of the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant and the Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Key Findings

Housing Stock

Vacancy Rate

Homeownership

Housing Structure Type

Housing Age and Size 

Housing Values and Rents

Housing Problems and Needs: Framework

Housing Problems and Needs: Quantity

Housing Problems and Needs: Quality

Housing Problems and Needs: Price

Strategies To Deal With Affordability Challenges 

Homelessness

Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Key Findings 

Age Distribution

Household Size

Household Type 

Educational Attainment

Labor Force Characteristics

Income and Poverty

How the Native Hawaiian Population Fared in the Great Recession

Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Historical Perspective

Defining Native Hawaiian

The Total Native Hawaiian Population

Hawaii’s Geography

Population Trends by County

Mobility

Section 1. Introduction

This Report and the Overall Study 

The Structure of This Report 

Executive Summary

Study Approach and Data Sources 

Key Findings

Conclusions

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

Key Findings

The Hawaiian Home Lands Population

Framing and Sources of Information 

Social and Economic Conditions

Housing Conditions: Problems and Needs

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

Summarizing Differences Among Groups