Housing Needs of

Native Hawaiians:

A Report From the

Assessment of American

Indian, Alaska Native,

and Native Hawaiian

Housing Needs

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development  |  Office of Policy Development and Research

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Housing Needs of

Native Hawaiians:

A Report From the

Assessment of American

Indian, Alaska Native,

and Native Hawaiian

Housing Needs

Prepared for:

U.S. Department of Housing

and Urban Development

Office of Poicy Development

and Research

Washington, D.C.

Prepared by:

Kristen Corey, Econometrica, Inc.

Jennifer Biess, Urban Institute

Nancy Pindus, Urban Institute

Doray Sitko, Econometrica, Inc.

May 2017

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the many people in Hawaii, including individuals on the waiting list for a home land lease who participated in the household survey, homestead associations, and other organizational stakeholders who agreed to talk with us. The success of this research depended on their participation and forthright responses. Everyone’s contributions were richer in detail than it was possible to reflect in this report.

The State of Hawaii Department of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL) was a partner throughout this effort. The authors thank DHHL Director Jobie M.K. Masagatani and Dreana Kalili for providing input to survey questions, assisting in outreach, and facilitating access to DHHL

staff and reports.

Econometrica, Inc., conducted initial outreach, secondary data analysis, and stakeholder interviews. Their knowledge of Hawaii’s history, geography, and housing market was critical to this report. The authors acknowledge Charles Hanson, who led the Econometrica team, and Richard Hilton, James Hedrick, Priscilla Prunella, and Katie Relihan, who contributed to the study design, analysis, and earlier drafts of this report.

NORC at the University of Chicago was responsible for the household survey that provides new information about Hawaiian Homes Commission Act beneficiary households on the waiting list for a Hawaiian home land lease. This complex effort was completed successfully and with cultural sensitivity. The authors thank Carol Hafford (project director), Suzanne Bard (survey director), Steven Pedlow (statistician), Joan Lipiec (field manager), Beth Fisher (survey director and analyst), Eram Khan (survey specialist), Ed Sipulski (production manager), and the Native Hawaiian community field interviewers for the important roles they played in outreach, sampling design, questionnaire development, survey administration, quality control, and analysis.

The authors also thank Urban Institute colleagues who contributed to this report. Chris Hayes advised the survey analysis team and provided ongoing technical review. Jasmine Simington and Lily Posey were key contributors to the survey analysis, and Eric Burnstein contributed to the analysis and to earlier drafts of this report. Tom Kingsley served as an advisor and reviewer throughout this study.

A panel of experts made valuable contributions to the research design and to this final report.

Panel members included Laura R. Appelbaum (FirstPic, Inc.), Kauila Clark (Native Hawaiian Traditional Healing Center), Marvin Jones (Community Services at the Cherokee Nation—

retired), Miriam Jorgensen (The University of Arizona and The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development), Patricia Nie (Wells Fargo & Company), Deana K. O’Hara (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development [HUD], Office of Native American Programs [ONAP]), Don Shircel (Tanana Chiefs Conference), Pamala Silas (National American Indian Housing Council), and Malia Villegas (National Congress of American Indians). Early comments were also provided by Blake Kazama (Tlinglit-Haida Regional Housing Authority-retired) and Peter Morris (National Congress of American Indians).

Finally, Elizabeth Rudd and Paul Joice, the study’s government technical representatives from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development’s Office of Policy

Development and Research, provided excellent guidance and oversight during this research effort. The authors also thank the staff of HUD ONAP and Kaiini Kimo Kaloi and Katrina Durbak of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Native Hawaiian Relations, who provided helpful comments on drafts of the report.

Disclaimer

The contents of this report are the views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development or the U.S. government.

Preface

In response to Congress’s 2009 mandate to assess Native American housing needs, the U.S.

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) commissioned the Assessment of American Indian, Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian Housing Needs. The study produced five separate reports that together contain a comprehensive and authoritative body of information on the current state of housing conditions in Native American communities.

The report on Native Hawaiians in Hawaii includes a wealth of specific information on housing conditions, including county-level differences, findings on housing and community preferences, and differences between Native Hawaiian households on the Hawaiian home lands and elsewhere in Hawaii.

The report’s principal finding is of a significant need for affordable housing among Native Hawaiians, especially among Native Hawaiians waiting for a lease on the Hawaiian home lands. Among households already living on the Hawaiian home lands, nearly all own their own homes and there is a much lower rate of cost burden than among Native Hawaiian households statewide. By contrast, compared with Native Hawaiian households statewide, households on the waiting list for a home lands lease are substantially worse off economically and much more likely to be cost burdened, to be overcrowded, and to lack complete plumbing and kitchens. The assessment also found that many Native Hawaiians strongly prefer housing and communities that support multigenerational and extended family (“ohana”) living and socializing, which is part of traditional Native Hawaiian culture.

Contents

Executive Summary ............................................................................................xi

Study Approach and Data Sources  .......................................................................................................xii

Key Findings .....................................................................................................................................................xiv

Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................................xviii

Section 1. Introduction .......................................................................................1

This Report and the Overall Study  .........................................................................................................2

The Structure of This Report  ....................................................................................................................3

Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution .............................................5

Historical Perspective ...................................................................................................................................5

Defining Native Hawaiian ............................................................................................................................6

The Total Native Hawaiian Population ...................................................................................................6

Hawaii’s Geography .......................................................................................................................................6

Population Trends by County ....................................................................................................................10

Mobility ...............................................................................................................................................................11

Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions ........................13

Key Findings  ....................................................................................................................................................13

Age Distribution ..............................................................................................................................................13

Household Size ................................................................................................................................................15

Household Type  .............................................................................................................................................15

Educational Attainment ...............................................................................................................................16

Labor Force Characteristics .......................................................................................................................17

Income and Poverty ......................................................................................................................................20

How the Native Hawaiian Population Fared in the Great Recession ..........................................22

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs ......................................................24

Key Findings .....................................................................................................................................................24

Housing Stock ..................................................................................................................................................25

Vacancy Rate ...................................................................................................................................................26

Homeownership ..............................................................................................................................................26

Housing Structure Type ...............................................................................................................................28

Housing Age and Size  .................................................................................................................................29

Housing Values and Rents ..........................................................................................................................30

Housing Problems and Needs: Framework ..........................................................................................31

Housing Problems and Needs: Quantity ...............................................................................................34

Housing Problems and Needs: Quality ..................................................................................................35

Housing Problems and Needs: Price.......................................................................................................36

Strategies To Deal With Affordability Challenges  ............................................................................37

Homelessness ..................................................................................................................................................38

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian

Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List ......................40

Key Findings .....................................................................................................................................................40

The Hawaiian Home Lands Population ..................................................................................................41

Framing and Sources of Information  .....................................................................................................41

Social and Economic Conditions ..............................................................................................................42

Housing Conditions: Problems and Needs ...........................................................................................45

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List .......................................................50

Summarizing Differences Among Groups ............................................................................................56

Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs .....................................................58

Key Findings .....................................................................................................................................................58

Hawaiian Home Lands Assistance ...........................................................................................................59

Role of the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant and the Native American Housing

Assistance and Self-Determination Act .................................................................................................68

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Section 7. Conclusions ........................................................................................72

The Native Hawaiian Population in Hawaii ...........................................................................................72

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List  .....................................................73

NAHASDA Assistance on the Hawaiian Home Lands ......................................................................73

Estimating the Need for NHHBG Assistance ......................................................................................74

Glossary ................................................................................................................76

List of Acronyms ..................................................................................................79

References ............................................................................................................80

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List of Exhibits

Exhibit ES.1. Definitions of Native Hawaiian ..........................................................................................xiii

Exhibit 2.1. Definitions of Native Hawaiian .............................................................................................7

Exhibit 2.2. Total Native Hawaiian Population, 2000 to 2010 ........................................................8

Exhibit 2.3. Counties in the State of Hawaii ...........................................................................................9

Exhibit 2.4. Land Area and Population Density, Hawaii and by County, 2010  ........................9

Exhibit 2.5. Population in Hawaii for the Total Population and the Native Hawaiian

Population, 2000-2010 ..................................................................................................................................10

Exhibit 3.1. Share of Population by Age Group and Native Hawaiian

Identification, 2010 ..........................................................................................................................................14

Exhibit 3.2. Educational Attainment by Native Hawaiian Identification in the

State of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010 ....................................................................................................................17

Exhibit 3.3. Percent Change in Share by Educational Attainment Level and

Native Hawaiian Identification, 2000 and 2006 to 2010 .................................................................18

Exhibit 3.4. Labor Force Characteristics for the State of Hawaii, by Native Hawaiian

Identification, 2000 and 2006 to 2010 ...................................................................................................19

Exhibit 3.5. Economic Indicators for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii,

2008 and 2011 ...................................................................................................................................................22

Exhibit 3.6. Poverty Rate for Total and Native Hawaiian Populations, 2008 to 2011 ............23

Exhibit 4.1. Housing Stock in the State of Hawaii by County, 2000 and 2006 to 2010 .......25

Exhibit 4.2. Homeownership Rates for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii,

by County, 2010 ................................................................................................................................................27

Exhibit 4.3. Percent of Units by Housing Structure Type, Native Hawaiians and

Residents of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010 ...........................................................................................................28

Exhibit 4.4. Percent of Native Hawaiian Households Living in Units Built Before

1960, 2000 and 2006 to 2010 ....................................................................................................................30

Exhibit 4.5. Median Home Value for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, by

Owner-Occupied Units, 2006 to 2010 ....................................................................................................31

Exhibit 4.6. Housing Problems and Needs Framework ....................................................................32

Exhibit 4.7. Percent of Households That Were Overcrowded, by Native Hawaiian

Identification, 1980 to 2006 to 2010 ........................................................................................................35

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Exhibit 4.8. Size of the Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Homeless

Population, 2015 ...............................................................................................................................................39

Exhibit 5.1. Household Composition in Hawaiian Home Lands Compared With All

Native Hawaiian Households in the State of Hawaii, 2010 ...............................................................43

Exhibit 5.2. Labor Force Characteristics for the State of Hawaii by Native Hawaiian

Identification and for the Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands,

2006 to 2010 .....................................................................................................................................................44

Exhibit 5.3. Poverty Rates by Age Group for the Total Population in Sampled

Hawaiian Home Lands and the Native Hawaiian Population in the State of Hawaii,

2006 to 2010 .....................................................................................................................................................45

Exhibit 5.4. Extended Family Arrangements Among Waiting List Households .....................53

Exhibit 5.5. Households by Housing Unit Characteristics Among Waiting

List Households ................................................................................................................................................54

Exhibit 5.6. Households by Condition Issues Among Waiting List Households .....................55

Exhibit 5.7. Comparison of Waiting List Households, Residents of the Sampled

Hawaiian Home Lands, Native Hawaiians, and Residents of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010

and 2014 to 2015 ..............................................................................................................................................57

Exhibit 7.1. Native Hawaiian Households Potentially Eligible for

NAHASDA Assistance ....................................................................................................................................75

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Technical Appendixes

Published separately in volume 2.

Appendix A. Census Data

A1. American Community Survey

A2. Decennial Census

A3. Census Data Tables

Appendix B. Household Survey of Native Hawaiians on the Waiting List for a Lease on the Home Lands

B1. Sampling

B2. Response Rates and Weighting

B3. Survey Administration Procedures

B4. Household Survey Data Tables

B5. Native Hawaiian Household Survey Instrument

Appendix C. Stakeholder Interviews and Discussion Groups Selection

C1. Approach

C2. Interview Guide for Stakeholder Discussions

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Executive Summary

Executive Summary

sufficiency and well-being of the Native

Hawaiian people, Congress established the

Hawaiian Home Land Trust in 1921, a set-

aside of more than 200,000 acres of land,

This report considers the housing needs

via the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act

and conditions of members of the

(HHCA). The State of Hawaii Department

Native Hawaiian community living in

of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL), a state

Hawaii, including housing characteristics,

agency, manages the Hawaiian Home Land

homeownership, and housing quantity,

Trust, with oversight provided by the U.S.

quality, and affordability. To provide

Department of the Interior. HHCA provides

a broader context for understanding

eligible Native Hawaiians, those who are

housing needs, the report describes

50 percent or more Native Hawaiian by

population growth and distribution and

blood quantum, with the ability to live on

also demographic, social, and economic

designated trust land (referred to in this

conditions and trends.

report as home lands), and provides 99-year

As one of the United States’ indigenous

homestead leases at an annual rental of $1.1

peoples, Native Hawaiian people have

Demand for homestead leases, which are

a unique relationship with the federal

primarily for residential purposes but are

government and receive benefits from a

also available for agricultural and pastoral

unique form of housing assistance. Although

uses, has consistently outstripped supply.

the federal government does not maintain

a formal government-to-government

Housing for low-income HHCA beneficiaries

relationship with the Native Hawaiian

on the home lands is also supported through

community as an organized, sovereign entity,

the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant

Congress has repeatedly acknowledged

(NHHBG) program, which is authorized

its special political and trust relationship

under an amendment to the Native

with the Native Hawaiian community

American Housing Assistance and Self-

since the overthrow of the Kingdom of

Determination Act (NAHASDA) of 1996, and

Hawaii more than a century ago. As part

is managed by DHHL.

of this relationship and to support the self-

1

Blood quantum reflects ties to the Native Hawaiian political community ( Proposed Amendments to the Organic Act of the Territory of Hawaii: Hearings on H.R. 7257 Before the House Committee on the Territories, 66th Cong. 15, at 140 [1921]). As Congress explained, Congress “does not extend services to Native Hawaiians because of their race, but because of their unique status as the indigenous peoples of a once sovereign nation as to whom the United States has established a trust relationship.” 114 Stat. 2968 (2000) (Hawaiian Homelands Homeownership Act).

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Executive Summary

Study Approach and Data Sources

°  Lessee refers to someone who (1) has

been awarded a lease on the home lands,

The study approach used already existing

(2) had a home lands lease transferred to

data and new data collection to describe the

them by the original leaseholder, or (3)

conditions of the Native Hawaiian community

succeeded to the lease after the death of

and to present comparisons with the

the original leaseholder.

population of Hawaii as a whole. The following

points describe the populations of interest.

•  The term  resident of Hawaii  refers to

people who live in the state of Hawaii but

•  Native Hawaiians in the United States

who do not identify as Native Hawaiian.

and, in particular, Native Hawaiians

Exhibit ES.1 lists these definitions and

living in the state of Hawaii. Because

their sources.

this study primarily used U.S. decennial

census and American Community

This report relies on several existing data

Survey data to analyze time trends, the

sources, primarily those provided by the

report uses the U.S. Census Bureau’s

U.S. Census Bureau and also two new data

definition of Native Hawaiian. The total

collection activities. Data products from

Native Hawaiian population is defined

the U.S. Census Bureau—the decennial

to include respondents who identified

censuses of 2000 and 2010 and the

Hawaiian as their only race (termed  Native

American Community Survey for the years

Hawaiian alone) and those who identified

2006 to 2010—form the basis for analysis

themselves as being Hawaiian and also

of trends in population, socioeconomic,

belonging to one or more other races

and housing conditions in Hawaii and

(termed  Native Hawaiian multiracial).22

for residents of sampled Hawaiian home

lands. DHHL surveys of its lessees, the

•  The population residing on the Hawaiian

most recent of which were completed

home lands. Because data for all

in 2008 and 2014, provide additional

indicators were not available for the Native

information about residents of the

Hawaiian population on all home lands,

Hawaiian home lands. This information is

the analysis of those living on the Hawaiian

supplemented with the following new data

home lands was limited to the total

collection sources.

population living on the 20 most populous

Hawaiian home lands communities. These

1.  Semistructured interviews conducted

20 home lands are home to 27,596 people,

in July 2014 with key informants from

nearly 90 percent of the total Hawaiian

a range of stakeholder organizations

home lands population.

provided qualitative information about

the housing market, housing stock, and

•  HHCA beneficiaries and qualified

housing-related challenges for Native

Hawaiian home land lessees.

Hawaiians in Hawaii in general and on the

home lands. Discussions were held with

°  Beneficiary or beneficiaries refers to

the segment of the Native Hawaiian

representatives of home land homestead

population that is eligible to live on the

associations, officials and staff of DHHL,

home lands, specified by HHCA to be

and staff at organizations with direct

those with at least 50 percent Native

experience working with the state’s Native

Hawaiian blood quantum.

Hawaiian population.

2  The technical U.S. census term is Native Hawaiian in combination.

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Executive Summary

Exhibit ES.1. Definitions of Native Hawaiian

In this report, the term  Native Hawaiian is used to refer to all Native Hawaiians, regardless of blood quantum.

Native Hawaiian: a descendant of the aboriginal people who, prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of Hawaii. This definition flows directly from multiple Acts of Congress. See, for example, 12 U.S.C. 1715z–13b(6); 25

U.S.C. 4221(9); 42 U.S.C. 254s(c); 42 U.S.C. 11711(3).

The term  HHCA beneficiary is used to refer to people with a Native Hawaiian blood quantum of 50 percent or more. HHCA is the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act, and HHCA beneficiary includes both HHCA lessees and those who are on the HHCA beneficiary waiting list.

An HHCA beneficiary is defined in P.L. 104-42 as having "the same meaning as is given the term Native Hawaiian under section 201(7) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act." Section 201 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act states "Native Hawaiian means any descendant of not less than one-half part of the blood of the races inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands previous to 1778." A lower case “n” (“native Hawaiian) is sometimes used refer to the subset of all Native Hawaiians who meet the blood quantum requirements set out in the HHCA. In this report, the term  HHCA beneficiary is used rather than native Hawaiian.

HHCA lessee means one of the following

(1) An HHCA beneficiary who has been awarded a lease under Section 207(a) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.a

(2) A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 percent or more) to whom land has been transferred under Section 208 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.

(3) A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 percent or more) successor lessee under Section 209 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.

Congress uses two approaches to defining the Native Hawaiian community—the definition that is used in the HHCA, and a broader definition that includes any U.S. citizen who descends from the aboriginal people who, prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of Hawaii (U.S. Department of the Interior, 2015).

In this report, since data sources used in this study provide data separately for Native Hawaiians and all other residents of Hawaii, the term resident of Hawaii refers to those who live in the state of Hawaii but who do not identify as Native Hawaiian. In general parlance, people who live in Hawaii or who come from Hawaii are not all referred to as  Hawaiians. The term  Hawaiian is used to describe members of the ethnic group indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands.  Hawaii resident or  islander describes anyone who lives in the state. (Section 3, Definitions, Senate Bill No. 147, March 2005, sponsored by Senator Daniel Akaka).

a  See Sections 207(a) and 208(5) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act and 43 CFR Part 47.10  Federal Register 80 (91).

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Executive Summary

2. A household survey administered

•  All this growth, however, was among the

in person to a sample of 516 HHCA

multiracial Native Hawaiian population;

beneficiary households provided new

the population that identified as Native

information on households eligible for

Hawaiian alone did not grow at all during

housing on the Hawaiian home lands but

the decade, but the Native Hawaiian

currently awaiting a lease assignment.

multiracial population grew 31 percent.

Data collection took place from August

As a result of this uneven growth, an

2014 to April 2015.

increasing share of the Native Hawaiian

population is multiracial: nearly three

° A representative sample was drawn from

in four people who identified as Native

a list of applicants on the waiting list for

Hawaiian in 2010 also identified as another

homestead leases on the Hawaiian home

race.

lands and who opted in, via postcard, to

participate in the survey. Trained Native

•  Native Hawaiians living in Hawaii move

Hawaiian interviewers conducted the

less often than other residents of Hawaii.

interviews at respondents’ residences

They are more likely to have lived in the

so they could document indicators

same housing unit as in the previous year

of quality and adequacy of the

(86 percent of Native Hawaiians compared

respondents’ housing. Overall, 82.2

with 84 percent for residents of Hawaii),

percent of households who opted into

and, of those who live in a different place,

the study completed the survey.

Native Hawaiians are more likely to live

in the same county as their previous

Key Findings

residence (84 percent of Native Hawaiians

This report presents findings about

compared with 56 percent of residents of

population growth and distribution;

Hawaii).

demographic, social, and economic

Demographic, Social, and Economic

conditions; and housing conditions and

Conditions

needs. Findings are presented specifically for

Native Hawaiians residing on the Hawaiian

This report compares the demographic,

Home Lands and HHCA beneficiaries on the

social, and economic conditions of Native

Home Lands waiting list.

Hawaiians residing in Hawaii and other

residents of Hawaii at the state and county

Population Growth and Distribution

levels from 2000 to 2010. The analysis

Changes in the Native Hawaiian population

includes age structure, household size and

and its distribution across the state have

type, educational attainment, employment

implications for the quantity, size, features,

levels, income, and poverty. Given the

and cost of housing needed.

significance of the recent national recession

(hereafter called the Great Recession) to

•  During the 2000-to-2010 decade, the

the economy during this decade, the report

Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii

also examines employment levels, income,

grew at nearly twice the rate of the state’s

and poverty to better understand the Great

population overall: the Native Hawaiian

Recession’s impact on Native Hawaiians

population grew at a rate of 21 percent

residing in Hawaii.3

compared with only a 12-percent rate for

the overall population of Hawaii.

3  The Great Recession occurred from December 2007 through June 2009.

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Executive Summary

The Native Hawaiian population has a

and they also have higher unemployment

larger share of children (under age 18)

rates than residents of Hawaii.

and a smaller share of seniors (age 65 and

older) than does the residents of Hawaii

•  Although improvements were made

population. In 2010, 39 percent of Native

during the 2000-to-2010 decade, Native

Hawaiians were under age 20 compared

Hawaiians living in Hawaii continue to

with 21 percent of residents of Hawaii. Only

be more economically disadvantaged:

7 percent of Native Hawaiians were age

they have lower incomes, higher rates of

65 and older compared with 16 percent of

assistance receipt, and higher poverty

residents of Hawaii.

rates than do other residents of Hawaii.

•  Native Hawaiian households tend to

•  Native Hawaiians living in Hawaii were

be larger. In 2010, the average size of a

disproportionately hurt by the Great

Native Hawaiian household was 4.1 people

Recession when compared with other

compared with 2.7 people for residents of

residents of Hawaii. From 2008 to 2011,

Hawaii households.

those Native Hawaiians experienced a

larger drop in their employment rate

•  Native Hawaiian households are more

and larger increases in their rates of

likely to be families with children than are

unemployment, poverty, and means-

residents of Hawaii households.

tested benefit receipt than did other

residents of Hawaii.

•  In 2010, 15 percent of Native Hawaiian

households were single-parent households,

Housing Conditions and Needs

more than twice the 6-percent rate for

residents of Hawaii households.

Using U.S. Census Bureau data sources and

information gleaned from key informant

•  The Native Hawaiian population has a

interviews, this report presents data on the

lower level of educational attainment than

housing stock and housing conditions and

does the residents of Hawaii population.

needs in Hawaii. It describes the housing

A larger share of the Native Hawaiian

market in Hawaii in comparison with the

population has attained no higher than a

United States as a whole and compares

high school diploma or general educational

housing information for Native Hawaiians

development, or GED, certificate (44

and other residents of Hawaii residing within

percent) than has the residents of Hawaii

the state of Hawaii (that is, both on and off

population (26 percent), and a smaller

the Hawaiian home lands), including selected

share of the Native Hawaiian population

indicators of housing problems and needs

(15 percent) has a bachelor’s or graduate

(that is, overcrowding, affordability, and

degree than does the residents of Hawaii

kitchen and plumbing facilities problems).

population (32 percent).

•  Housing stock growth in Hawaii was

•  Native Hawaiians participate in the civilian

similar to the rate of growth in the United

labor force (that is, they are either working

States overall (13 percent in Hawaii and

or looking for work in civilian jobs) at higher

14 percent in the United States). Within

rates than do residents of Hawaii, who have

the state, Honolulu County saw the least

higher rates of military participation, given

new development, reflecting the state’s

the U.S. Department of Defense’s strong

priorities to promote growth outside

presence in the state. Native Hawaiians

Honolulu County.

work in lower-wage service industry jobs,

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Executive Summary

•  Vacation homes (that is, units for

•  Native Hawaiian households face

seasonal, recreational, or occasional use)

higher rates of facilities problems than

dominate housing vacancies in Hawaii: 47

do residents of Hawaii households. For

percent of vacant units in the state fall

example, during the 2006-to-2010 period,

into this category. Vacancy rates among

1.1 percent of Native Hawaiian households

units available for permanent residences

lacked complete plumbing facilities

in Hawaii are similar to the United States

compared with 0.7 percent of residents of

overall for homeowner units (both about

Hawaii households.

2 percent) and lower for rental units

(8 percent in Hawaii compared with 9

•  Native Hawaiian households also

percent in the United States), suggesting

experience higher rates of overcrowding (15

a tighter housing market.

percent) compared with residents of Hawaii

households (8 percent).

•  Native Hawaiian households live in older

housing at slightly higher rates and

•  Affordability challenges are more acute in

are more likely to live in single-family

Hawaii than in the United States overall,

detached homes than are residents of

with both the Native Hawaiian and

Hawaii households. During the 2006-

residents of Hawaii cost burden rates (40

to-2010 period, 21 percent of Native

and 42 percent, respectively) surpassing

Hawaiian households lived in units built

the national rate of 36 percent. Despite the

before 1960 compared with 19 percent of

slightly lower rate among Native Hawaiians,

residents of Hawaii households. Further,

key informants from multiple organizations

71 percent of Native Hawaiian households

noted the prevalence of affordability

lived in single-family detached homes

problems among Native Hawaiians

compared with 63 percent of residents

and indicated that they cope with this

of Hawaii households.

challenge through extended-family living

or overcrowding, taking on additional jobs,

•  Despite Native Hawaiians’ preference for

or moving to less expensive areas farther

homeownership over renting, the Native

from employment.

Hawaiian homeownership rate lags

behind that of residents of Hawaii. During

•  Homelessness among Native Hawaiians is

the 2006-to-2010 period, 55 percent

prevalent. Although not typically chronically

of Native Hawaiian households were

homeless, they are overrepresented in

homeowners compared with 58 percent

Hawaii’s homeless population. Homeless

of residents of Hawaii households.

Native Hawaiians often have jobs but

cannot afford housing, so they double up

•  When Native Hawaiians do own homes,

or live in tents, shelters, cars, or garages.

those homes tend to be valued at

less than homes owned by residents

Native Hawaiians Residing on

of Hawaii. During the 2006-to-2010

Hawaiian Home Lands and on the

period, the median home value for

Home Lands Waiting List

Native Hawaiians ($463,800) was nearly

$75,000 less than the state median.

Findings specific to Native Hawaiians

This disparity persisted in the four

residing on the Hawaiian home lands and

counties examined.

those on the waiting list for a lot on the

Hawaiian home lands include the following.4

4  Note that these two groups are not mutually exclusive, because some individuals who reside on the Hawaiian home lands are also HHCA beneficiary applicants on the waiting list.

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Executive Summary

•  Households on the 20 sampled Hawaiian

households, and 8 percent of residents

home lands were more demographically

of Hawaii households.

similar to HHCA beneficiary households

on the waiting list than to Native Hawaiian

° About 10 percent of HHCA beneficiary

and residents of Hawaii households. For

households on the waiting list lack

example, about 25 percent of households

complete plumbing compared with 1

on the sampled Hawaiian home lands and

percent for all other groups.

on the waiting list are married couples

° Nearly one-half (46 percent) of HHCA

with children, and about 9 percent are

beneficiary households on the waiting

single-parent households. Further, about

list experience cost burden compared

two in five households for both groups

with 40 percent of Native Hawaiian

have five or more members.

households, 42 percent of resident

•  HHCA beneficiary households on the

of Hawaii households, and only 21

waiting list are more economically

percent of households on the sampled

disadvantaged than are Native Hawaiian

Hawaiian home lands. The much lower

households overall, residents of Hawaii

rate of cost burden among home lands

households, and Native Hawaiian

households is due, at least in part, to the

households living on the home lands.

financial benefits of home lands leases,

which reduce monthly housing costs,

° HHCA beneficiary households on

including minimal lease payments for

the waiting list have the lowest

the land and a 7-year exemption from

median income of all four groups

real estate property tax.

by a substantial margin: $48,000

compared with more than $60,000 for

Housing Policies and Programs

all other groups.

This study considered Hawaiian home

° HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list

lands policies and other housing assistance

also receive public cash assistance

programs available to members of the

at more than twice the rate of the

Native Hawaiian community, homeownership

other groups: about 20 percent of

and mortgage access, and NAHASDA

households on the waiting list received

funding and activities.

public cash assistance compared with

•  DHHL has extended home land lease

about 7 percent of Native Hawaiians

offers to thousands of HHCA beneficiaries

and those living on the home lands

on the waiting list for a residential lot

and 3 percent for residents of Hawaii.

during the past 20 years, but many

•  HHCA beneficiary households on the

HHCA beneficiary lease applicants do

waiting list face more significant housing

not assume a lease when it is offered.

challenges across all dimensions than do

DHHL staff and other informants noted

the other groups.

that inability to secure the necessary loan

is a significant barrier to lease takeup.

° Nearly 40 percent of HHCA

DHHL staff also reported that applicants

beneficiary households on the waiting

turn down leases because they are not

list were overcrowded compared

interested in the lot available, are waiting

with only 19 percent of households

for property in a specific area, consider

on sampled Hawaiian home lands, 15

themselves too old to assume a mortgage,

percent of the state’s Native Hawaiian

or are living on the mainland and not

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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xvii

Executive Summary

ready to return to Hawaii. The survey of

financial literacy; and grants for model

HHCA beneficiary households on the

activities, including safety enhancements,

waiting list confirmed these impressions.

organizational support, community

About 55 percent of households had

policing, and model activities that

received a lease offer from DHHL, and the

incorporate educational, cultural, and

most common reasons for not accepting

recreational activities for affordable-

it were not liking the location, thinking

housing residents.

they would not qualify for the loan, and

not being able to relocate at that time.

•  Like tribal reservation lands on the

continental United States, Hawaiian

•  In previous years, DHHL prioritized

home lands are held in trust and the

turnkey developments, which provide

inalienability of the trust lands constrains

lessees with built homes rather than

building or purchasing homes on Hawaiian

owner-build plots where lessees build

home lands.5 Private lenders are unwilling

their own houses. Turnkey leases cost

to lend to a home lands homebuyer

more, which some stakeholders believe

because no mechanism would be in place

has made it harder for low- and moderate-

to foreclose in the event of a borrower

income HHCA beneficiaries to have a

default. Various federal programs have

lease on the Hawaiian home lands. DHHL

been designed to address this issue.

is currently piloting rental and rent with

option to purchase models to better meet

•  One challenge related to NAHASDA

the needs of some lower-income HHCA

funding is that, because NHHBG is a federal

beneficiaries. DHHL more recently has

funding stream, DHHL must pay prevailing

taken a renewed look at providing more

wages as determined by the Davis-

owner-build plots and financing options

Bacon Act wage requirements. Although

to assist lower-income HHCA beneficiaries

American Indian tribes and Alaska Native

with building their own homes.

villages can apply their own prevailing

wage rates in lieu of the federal ones, DHHL

•  Despite the affordability challenge,

does not have this authority. Key informants

Native Hawaiians tend to prefer owning a

noted that the prevailing wage rates are

single-family home. About 60 percent of

often higher than market or labor union

households on the waiting list indicated an

wage rates, increasing the cost of labor.

improved lot with a new house as their first

choice, and 46 percent listed an improved

Conclusions

lot with an existing house as their second

Overall, the Native Hawaiian population

choice. Further, only one-half of HHCA

faces greater levels of disadvantage than

beneficiary households on the waiting list

the residents of Hawaii population, and

would be willing to accept a townhouse or

HHCA beneficiary households on the waiting

multiplex unit rather than a single-family

list for homestead leases on the Hawaiian

unit in order to get a home more quickly.

home lands face even larger challenges. By

•  DHHL staff highlighted a number of ways

contrast, Native Hawaiians currently living

they use NHHBG funds, including capital

on the Hawaiian home lands have higher

improvement; mortgage and home-repair

incomes and face housing affordability

loan financing; loss mitigation;

issues less often.

5  From a legal perspective, the Hawaiian home lands are public lands held in trust by the State of Hawaii for the benefit of Native Hawaiians as defined in the HHCA. Thus, HHCA beneficiaries who become residents on one of the Hawaiian home lands are not landowners, but rather “lessees.”

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Executive Summary

Evidence suggests the need for increased

assistance programs serving all residents of

homeownership supports among low-

Hawaii, such as the Housing Choice Voucher

income HHCA beneficiary households on

program, which has closed waiting lists

the waiting list. Many renters (63 percent) on

throughout the state.

the HHCA beneficiary waiting list who would

prefer to own a home are unable to do so

Native Hawaiians living on the Hawaiian

because they cannot afford a downpayment

home lands are better off financially

or save enough for a house. Although the

than other Native Hawaiians, while at the

survey sample was drawn from all HHCA

same time HHCA beneficiary applicants

beneficiary applicants on the waiting list

on the waiting list struggle the most with

and was not limited to NAHASDA-eligible

affordability problems. This difference

HHCA beneficiaries (those at less than

could be due in part to the ability of

80 percent of the Area Median Income),

financially better off HHCA beneficiaries

their income data suggest that about one-

to assume leases more often because

half of this population would qualify for

they are able to obtain the necessary

NAHASDA assistance. This finding suggests

housing loan and the inability of those

the need for NAHASDA funds to support

who are worse off to obtain the housing

downpayment assistance, credit counseling,

loan, requiring them to stay on the waiting

and homebuyer education and also the

list. The evidence suggests the benefits

development of larger homes suited to

of home lands housing, however, and

the group’s larger typical household size.

supports continuous and increased funding

A complementary approach might be

for infrastructure, housing development,

to support affordable rental options as a

and housing assistance for low-income

stepping stone to homeownership.

HHCA beneficiaries. Data show that all

Native Hawaiian households, but especially

The NHHBG program is limited to serving

those on the waiting list for a home lands

income-eligible HHCA beneficiaries. Other

lease, face significant housing challenges,

members of the Native Hawaiian community

suggesting a need to consider alternative

who are ineligible for homestead leases

ways to assist low-income households

must seek assistance through housing

through the NHHBG and other programs.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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xix

Section 1. Introduction

Section 1. Introduction

community since the overthrow of the

Kingdom of Hawaii more than a century

ago, the federal government does

not maintain a formal government-to-

This report is part of the Assessment of

government relationship with the Native

American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native

Hawaiian community as an organized,

Hawaiian Housing Needs sponsored by the

sovereign entity. The State of Hawaii’s

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Department of Hawaiian Home Lands

Development (HUD). The overarching

(DHHL) manages NHHBG funds. DHHL also

purpose of the assessment is to document

handles the day-to-day management of the

the housing needs and conditions of

Hawaiian Home Lands program established

American Indians, Alaska Natives, and

in 1921 by the Hawaiian Homes Commission

Native Hawaiians.

Act (HHCA). The public land trust of more

This report examines patterns in the social,

than 200,000 acres was established for

economic, and housing characteristics and

homesteading by members of the Native

conditions of Native Hawaiians based on

Hawaiian community who are not less than

data produced by the U.S. Census Bureau

one-half part of the blood of the people

and on new data collection. The Urban

inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands before 1778

Institute conducted a similar assessment

in order to support the self-sufficiency and

of Native Hawaiian housing problems and

well-being of the Native Hawaiian people.6

needs using 1990 census data (Mikelsons et

The blood quantum requirement of these

al., 1995). That report identified substantial

persons, referred to in this report as  HHCA

disparities between Native Hawaiians and

beneficiaries, reflects ties to the Native

non-Native Hawaiians in education, income,

Hawaiian political community.7

and unemployment. In addition, it found that

These trust lands are leased to HHCA

Native Hawaiians experienced substantial

beneficiaries for residential, agricultural,

housing problems, including overcrowding

and pastoral purposes in homestead

and cost burden. Given these levels of need

communities. From a legal perspective,

and disparity, the report suggested that

the Hawaiian home lands are public lands

existing housing and development programs

held in trust by the State of Hawaii for the

were not meeting the housing needs of

benefit of Native Hawaiians, as defined

Native Hawaiians.

in HHCA. Thus, HHCA beneficiaries who

The Native Hawaiian population receives

become residents on one of the Hawaiian

federal housing funds through the Native

home lands are not landowners, but

Hawaiian Housing Block Grant (NHHBG),

rather “lessees.” Demand for homestead

which is authorized by an amendment to

leases is consistently greater than the

the Native American Housing Assistance

supply. DHHL currently has 43,080

and Self-Determination Act (NAHASDA).

applications on its waiting list, of which

Although Congress has repeatedly

21,929 were applications for residential

acknowledged its special political and

homesteads (DHHL, 2014b). This situation

trust relationship with the Native Hawaiian

exists, in part, because many of the lands

in the trust are remote and lack

6  Section 201 of HHCA. The first contact of Western populations with the Hawaiian Islands occurred in 1778.

7   Proposed Amendments to the Organic Act of the Territory of Hawaii: Hearings on H.R. 7257 Before the House Comm. on the Territories, 66th Cong. 15, at 140 (1921). As Congress explained, Congress “does not extend services to Native Hawaiians because of their race, but because of their unique status as the indigenous peoples of a once sovereign nation as to whom the United States has established a trust relationship” 114

Stat. 2968 (2000) (Hawaiian Homelands Homeownership Act).

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

1

Section 1. Introduction

the infrastructure needed for homesteading

•  What are the housing characteristics and

purposes, such as roads, drainage, water,

living conditions of the Native Hawaiian

sewer, and electricity.

population in Hawaii? How do these

trends compare with trends identified in

Through this assessment of the housing

Mikelsons et al. (1995)?

needs of the Native Hawaiian population,

this report aims to provide information that

•  What differences exist between the

can inform policy in ways that support the

housing characteristics and living

federal government and other stakeholders

conditions of the Native Hawaiian

in effectively using resources to improve

population residing on the Hawaiian home

the housing conditions of the Native

lands and the Native Hawaiian population

Hawaiian community.

living in the rest of the state of Hawaii?

This Report and the Overall Study

•  What are the housing conditions and

needs of HHCA beneficiaries on the

Because of differences in the history and

waiting list for leases in the Hawaiian

characteristics of the Native Hawaiian

home lands, and how do they

population and land trust administration

compare with those of Hawaiian home

compared with those of the American

lands residents?

Indian and Alaska Native populations,

the assessment of the housing needs of

The study approach combined existing

Native Hawaiians was conducted as a

data and new data collection and included

distinct project component of the national

both quantitative and qualitative methods.

Assessment of American Indian, Alaska

The report includes descriptions of the

Native, and Native Hawaiian Housing Needs.

geography and history of Hawaii that

provide context for unique landownership

This report presents an overview of

and housing concepts and for development

characteristics of Native Hawaiians living

challenges in Hawaii. The following data

in the state of Hawaii and addresses the

sources are used in this study.

following research questions.

•  Data products from the U.S. Census. The

•  What has been the extent of population

decennial censuses of 2000 and 2010

growth for Native Hawaiians, and what

and the 2006–2010 American Community

are the trends between the 2000 and

Survey (ACS) 5-year estimates form the

2010 censuses?

basis for analysis of trends in population,

•  What are the trends in the distribution of

socioeconomic conditions, and housing

the Native Hawaiian population over time?

in Hawaii and for residents of sampled

Hawaiian home lands.8 The research team

•  What are the trends in the social and

also used the 2008 and 2011 1-year ACS

economic conditions of the Native

estimates to evaluate the impact of the

Hawaiian population between the 2000

Great Recession on Native Hawaiians.

and 2010 censuses? How do these trends

compare with trends identified in the

•  DHHL surveys of its lessees. The research

earlier Urban Institute study conducted

team used the most recent surveys, which

for HUD (Mikelsons et al., 1995)?

were completed in 2008 and 2014.

8  Some analysis of the characteristics of the Native Hawaiian population residing in the continental United States is included in this report, but most of the study’s data collection and analyses focus on the Native Hawaiian population in the state of Hawaii.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

2

Section 1. Introduction

•  Discussions with stakeholders in

° Trained Native Hawaian interviewers

Hawaii. Semistructured discussions

conducted interviews. The overall unweighted

conducted in July 2014 provide qualitative

response rate was 82.2 percent.9

information about the housing market,

housing stock, and housing challenges

Additional detail about data sources

for Native Hawaiians in general and

and methods is included in the technical

residents in the Hawaiian home lands in

appendixes.

particular. Discussions were held with

The Structure of This Report

leadership and members of homestead

associations, officials and staff of DHHL,

The remaining sections of the report consist

and stakeholders at organizations that

of sections 2 through 7 and technical

work with the state’s Native Hawaiian

appendixes. The report moves from the

population. This last group included

broader context of the state of Hawaii to

the State of Hawaii Office of Hawaiian

the Hawaiian home lands, followed by new

Affairs, housing assistance providers,

information about HHCA beneficiaries on the

financial institutions, advocacy groups,

waiting list for a lot on the home lands. The

and faith-based and other social service  report then describes housing policies and organizations.

programs in Hawaii, challenges that Native

Hawaiians face, and policy implications and

•  Household survey. An in-person survey

conclusions.

of 516 HHCA beneficiary households

provided new information on HHCA

Section 2—Population Growth and

beneficiary households who were eligible

Distribution

for housing on the Hawaiian home lands

but were currently awaiting assignment

Section 2 presents information on the

of a lease. Data collection took place from

changing size of the Native Hawaiian

August 2014 through April 2015.

population in the United States, in the

state of Hawaii, and in counties within the

° A representative sample was drawn

state. These trends provide context for

from a list of applicants on the waiting

understanding the housing needs of Native

list and who opted in, via postcard, to

Hawaiians. The analysis was based primarily

participate in the survey (see exhibit

on data from the 2000 and 2010 decennial

ES.1 for the definition of an HHCA

censuses and the 2006–2010 ACS.

beneficiary). Obtaining a random sample

of HHCA beneficiaries from the general

Section 3—Demographic, Social, and

population of the state would have been

Economic Conditions

beyond the funding limits of the study.

Section 3 describes the demographic, social,

After reviewing several administrative

and economic conditions of Native Hawaiians

databases, the study team determined

in Hawaii, including age structure, household

that the waiting list database provided

size and type, educational attainment,

the best pool from which to draw a

employment levels, income, and poverty.

random sample of individuals of Native

Native Hawaiians and non-Native Hawaiians

Hawaiian heritage.

are compared across these domains at the

state and county levels from

9  Some postcard opt-ins to the survey that were received late in the field period were sampled out because the research team did not need to include them to reach the sample targets. The unweighted response rate excludes those cases.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

3

Section 1. Introduction

2000 to 2010. Given the significance of the

Section 6—Housing Policies and Programs

Great Recession to the national economy

during this decade, this section also

Section 6 discusses Hawaiian home lands

examines selected variables (employment

policies and other housing assistance

levels, income, and poverty) to better

programs available to the Native Hawaiian

understand the Great Recession’s impact on

community and to other low-income

Native Hawaiians.

residents of Hawaii. This section then

considers homeownership and access to

Section 4—Housing Conditions and Needs

mortgages. The research team’s review of

policy documents and research reports

Using U.S. Census Bureau data sources and

is further informed by discussions with

information gleaned from interviews with

stakeholder organizations, ongoing

stakeholders in Hawaii, section 4 presents

discussions with DHHL, and the survey of

data on the housing stock and housing

households on the waiting list.

conditions and needs in Hawaii. The

section begins by describing the housing

Section 7—Conclusions

market, including the types, age, size, and

values of housing in Hawaii, and compares

The report concludes with an overall

these data with data for the United States

assessment of the challenges of the Native

as a whole. It also compares housing

Hawaiian population, residents currently

information for Native Hawaiians and non-

living on the Hawaiian home lands, and

Native Hawaiians residing within Hawaii.

HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for

This section presents selected indicators

homestead leases on the Hawaiian home

of housing problems and needs, including

lands. The research team finds that the

overcrowding, affordability, and kitchen

data suggest the benefits of receiving a

and plumbing facilities problems. The data

homestead lease and substantiate the need

presented for Native Hawaiians in this

for continued housing assistance for Native

section include all respondents in Hawaii

Hawaiians. The research also estimates the

who self-identified as Native Hawaiian in

proportion of Native Hawaiians who could

the census, including Native Hawaiians

potentially be served by NAHASDA.

residing on the Hawaiian home lands.

Section 5—Circumstances of Native

Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home

Lands and on the Home Lands Waiting List

Sections 2 through 4 of this report describe

population growth and distribution, social

and economic conditions and trends, and

housing conditions and needs for all of

Hawaii by using census data to compare

Native Hawaiians residing in the state

with other residents of Hawaii. Section 5

addresses the same topics, focusing on two

groups of Native Hawaiians: those residing

on the Hawaiian home lands and those

HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for a

lot on the Hawaiian home lands.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

4

Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Section 2. Population

however, Native Hawaiians made up a

larger share of the population there in

Growth and Distribution

2010 than in 2000.

•  Native Hawaiians residing in Hawaii move

less often than other residents of Hawaii.

This section presents information on the

They were more likely to have lived in the

changing size of the Native Hawaiian

same housing unit in the previous year,

population in the United States, in the

and those who moved were more likely to

state of Hawaii, and in the counties within

remain in the same county.

the state. These trends provide context

for understanding the housing needs of

Historical Perspective

Native Hawaiians. Changes in the Native

Native Hawaiians experienced drastic

Hawaiian population and its distribution

population losses in the century after first

across the state have implications for the

contact with non-Hawaiians due to the

quantity, size, features, and cost of housing

introduction of diseases, weapons, and

needed. The analysis was based primarily

alcohol. The size of Hawaii’s indigenous

on data from the 2000 and 2010 decennial

population was estimated at 200,000 to

censuses and the 2006–2010 American

400,000 around 1778. A census taken in

Community Survey.

the 1830s enumerated a Native Hawaiian

Key findings from this section include—

population of only 130,000, and, in 1900, the

Native Hawaiian population was less than

•  During the 2000-to-2010 decade, the

40,000 (Mikelsons et al., 1995).

Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii

grew at twice the rate of the state’s

The depopulation of Hawaii was sharply

population overall.

reversed early in the 20th century, however,

with large-scale immigration to the state.

•  All this growth, however, was among the

Increasing demand for plantation workers

multiracial Native Hawaiian population.

stimulated immigration initially from

The population that identified as Native

China and Portugal and, later, from Japan

Hawaiian alone did not grow at all during

and the Philippines. Immigration from

the decade, but the Native Hawaiian

the U.S. mainland as a result of Hawaii’s

multiracial population grew 31 percent.

annexation and conversion to statehood

also contributed importantly to growth

•  As a result of this uneven growth, an

(Mikelsons et al., 1995). By 2000, Hawaii’s

increasing share of the Native Hawaiian

population had grown to about 1.2 million

population is multiracial. Nearly three

overall, nearly eight times what it had been

in four people who identified as Native

in 1900 (about 150,000 residents; see

Hawaiian in 2010 also identified as

appendix A, exhibit A3.1).

another race.

Although no fully reliable data are available,

•  Native Hawaiians were more likely to live

it is likely that Native Hawaiians accounted

outside Honolulu County than were other

for nearly all the state’s people in 1900,

residents of Hawaii. Because the Native

but their share dropped significantly after

Hawaiian population grew by a much

that. In 1990, the U.S. Census reported

larger percentage than did the residents

that Native Hawaiians accounted for only

of Hawaii population in Honolulu County,

13 percent of the total state population;

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

5

Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Asians accounted for 49 percent, Whites

290,000 (55 percent) lived in Hawaii and

for 33 percent, and Blacks for 2.5 percent

237,000 (45 percent) lived on the mainland.

(Mikelsons et al., 1995).

The population living on the mainland has a

slightly higher share of those who identify as

Defining Native Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian alone (32 percent) than the

The U.S. decennial census provides reliable,

population in Hawaii (28 percent).

consistently defined information about the

Further, growth rates among the Native

population in the country. Since the census’s

Hawaiian population have been driven

inception, however, the U.S. Census Bureau

by growth among the Native Hawaiian

has changed how it asks respondents about

multiracial population. Overall, that group

race and ethnicity, which limits the ability

grew 42 percent during the decade

to make comparisons about the Native

compared with a growth rate of 10 percent

Hawaiian population over time.10A significant

for the total U.S. population. Growth was

change occurred in 2000, when the U.S.

strong inside and outside Hawaii: the

Census Bureau started allowing respondents

mainland population grew 60 percent, and

to identify themselves as belonging to more

the Native Hawaiian multiracial population

than one race, and, in 2010, the Census

in Hawaii grew 31 percent. By contrast, the

Bureau adopted a consistent approach.

Native Hawaiian-alone population grew

Because this report primarily focuses on

much more slowly during the decade, and

comparing trends from 2000 to 2010,

all the growth happened outside Hawaii.

which use consistent racial definitions,

The Native Hawaiian-alone population

this change does not present a significant

on the mainland grew 25 percent, but

problem for this report. Some comparisons

the population in Hawaii experienced no

are made with 1990 decennial census data

growth, remaining at about 80,000 during

from Mikelsons et al. (1995), and those

the decade. A result of these trends is that

comparisons should be interpreted with

an increasing share of the Native Hawaiian

caution. This report uses the population

population is multiracial, with 72 percent

definitions shown in exhibit 2.1, which is also

(nearly three in four) of those who identify

included in the executive summary.

as Native Hawaiian also identifying with

The Total Native Hawaiian

another race in 2010.

Population

Hawaii’s Geography

By 2010, the Native Hawaiian population

The state of Hawaii is part of the Hawaiian

was roughly evenly split between those

archipelago, which spans 1,500 square

living in Hawaii and those residing on

miles and includes 132 islands. The state

the U.S. mainland (exhibit 2.2). Because

itself includes eight major islands in the

of differing growth rates, the population

southeastern part of the archipelago: Hawaii,

became increasingly dominated by the

Kahoolawe, Kauai, Lanai, Maui, Molokai,

Native Hawaiian multiracial population. In

Niihau, and Oahu (see exhibit 2.3). All are

2010, 527,000 people identified as Native

inhabited, except for Kahoolawe. The island

Hawaiian in the United States, and, of those,

of Hawaii is the largest, containing 62.7

10  Early census data, such as the 1900 U.S. Census of the Hawaiian Islands, listed Hawaiian as an option. Hawaii became a state in 1959, and, in 1960, “Hawaiian” and “Part Hawaiian” were added as racial categories for state of Hawaii residents only. In 1970, these two categories were collapsed into “Hawaiian” and this single category was added as an option for every state except Alaska (Hixson, Hepler, and Kim, 2010).

This change resulted in a substantial reduction in the population that identified as Hawaiian in the state between 1960 and 1970, presum-ably because many Hawaiians chose another racial category in 1970 because “Part Hawaiian” was no longer an option (Jaworowski, 1998).

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Exhibit 2.1. Definitions of Native Hawaiian

In this report, the term  Native Hawaiian is used to refer to all Native Hawaiians, regardless of blood quantum.

Native Hawaiian: a descendant of the aboriginal people who, prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of Hawaii. This definition flows directly from multiple Acts of Congress. See, for example, 12 U.S.C. 1715z–13b(6); 25 U.S.C.

4221(9); 42 U.S.C. 254s(c); 42 U.S.C. 11711(3).

The term  HHCA beneficiary is used to refer to people with a Native Hawaiian blood quantum of 50 percent or more. HHCA is the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act, and HHCA beneficiary includes both HHCA lessees and those who are on the HHCA beneficiary waiting list.

An HHCA beneficiary is defined in P.L. 104-42 as having "the same meaning as is given the term Native Hawaiian under section 201(7) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act." Section 201 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act states "Native Hawaiian means any descendant of not less than one-half part of the blood of the races inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands previous to 1778." A lower case “n” (“native Hawaiian) is sometimes used refer to the subset of all Native Hawaiians who meet the blood quantum requirements set out in the HHCA. In this report, the term  HHCA beneficiary is used rather than native Hawaiian.

HHCA lessee means one of the following

(1) An HHCA beneficiary who has been awarded a lease under Section 207(a) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.

(2) A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 percent or more) to whom land has been transferred under Section 208 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.

(3) A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25 percent or more) successor lessee under Section 209 of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.a

Congress uses two approaches to defining the Native Hawaiian community—the definition that is used in the HHCA, and a broader definition that includes any U.S. citizen who descends from the aboriginal people who, prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of Hawaii (U.S. Department of the Interior, 2015).

In this report, since data sources used in this study provide data separately for Native Hawaiians and all other residents of Hawaii, the term resident of Hawaii refers to those who live in the state of Hawaii but who do not identify as Native Hawaiian. In general parlance, people who live in Hawaii or who come from Hawaii are not all referred to as  Hawaiians. The term  Hawaiian is used to describe members of the ethnic group indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands.  Hawaii resident or  islander describes anyone who lives in the state. (Section 3, Definitions, Senate Bill No. 147, March 2005, sponsored by Senator Daniel Akaka).

a See Sections 207(a) and 208(5) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act and 43 CFR Part 47.10  Federal Register 80 (91).

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Exhibit 2.2. Total Native Hawaiian Population, 2000 to 2010

Total Population

Native Hawaiian Population

Total

Alone

Multiracial

Population, 2010 (000)

U.S. total

308,746

527

156

371

Hawai

1,360

290

80

210

Mainland United States

307,385

237

76

161

Percent of Total Population, 2010

U.S. total

100

100

100

100

Hawai

0*

55

51

57

Mainland United States

100

45

49

43

Percent Change in Population, 2000–2010

U.S. total

10

31

11

42

Hawai

12

21

0

31

Mainland United States

10

47

25

60

* Because less than 1 percent of the U.S. total population lives in Hawaii, the percentage rounds to zero.

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial censuses 2000 and 2010

percent of the state’s land area. Apart from

developed. Although it has the smallest land

the United States as a whole and the state of

area, it has by far the highest population,

Hawaii, the main geographic divisions used

at nearly 1 million (70 percent of the entire

in this report are counties and the Hawaiian

state’s population), resulting in a population

home lands. Hawaii has five counties: Hawaii,

density that was 15 to 30 times that of the

Honolulu, Kalawao, Kauai, and Maui. The

other counties in 2010. The other three

islands included in each county are shown

counties were much less densely populated

in the county/island chart. Because of data

and had smaller population shares. In

availability limitations, county-level analysis in

2010, 14 percent of the state’s population

this report does not include Kalawao County.11

lived in Hawaii County, 11 percent lived in

Maui County, and 5 percent lived in Kauai

The counties in Hawaii differ in their

County. Although Hawaii County has more

population size, land area, and population

people than Maui and Kauai Counties, it is

density (exhibit 2.4). The starkest contrasts

also larger in size, resulting in a population

are between Honolulu County, which

density of about 46 people per square mile,

contains the state’s only major city,

which is about one-half the densities of Maui

Honolulu, and the remainder of the state.

and Kauai Counties.

Honolulu County is by far the most

11  Kalawao County has a unique population in Hawaii. This county, with a population of 90 in 2010, is coterminous with the Kalaupapa National Historical Park, which includes the Kalaupapa settlement, whose residents after the 1860s were exiled individuals with leprosy (Hansen’s disease). After the quarantine policy was lifted in 1969, many of the residents chose to remain and are permitted to remain for the rest of their lives. This county is excluded from analyses for this study because the current population is extremely small, no new residents are allowed to move there, and the characteristics and needs of the current residents are unique in comparison with those of other residents in Hawaii.

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Exhibit 2.3. Counties in the State of Hawaii

County

Islands

Hawaii

Hawai

Honolulu

Oahu, several smal er islands

Kalawao

Kalaupapa peninsula on the island of Molokai

Kauai

Kauai and Ni hau, nearby smaller islands

Maui

Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, and most of Molokai

Exhibit 2.4. Land Area and Population Density, Hawaii and by County, 2010

Population (thousands) Land Area, (sq. mi.)

Population Density (per sq. mi.)

Hawai

1,360

6,422

211.8

Counties

Hawai

185

4,028

45.9

Honolulu

953

600

1,586.70

Kauai

67

620

108.2

Maui

155

1,161

133.3

Source: U.S. Census Bureau: State and County QuickFacts.

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Population Trends by County

policies to slow development in Honolulu

County and redirect it to the other counties.

Since the mid-20th century, the State of

In response to these policies, population

Hawaii has aimed to slow growth in Honolulu

increases during the next three decades

County and promote development in the

in the three more rural counties exceeded

rest of the state. As described by Mikelsons

those in Honolulu. From 1970 to 1990, Maui

et al. (1995), Honolulu County experienced

County experienced the most dramatic

the most overall population growth from

growth, with the population more than

1900 to 1990, growing to 14 times its 1900

doubling, from 46,000 to 101,000.

size, and the other counties’ populations

grew much more slowly (from 2.5 to 3.6

This trend continued during the 2000-

times their 1900 sizes by 1990). The pattern

to-2010 decade, when the populations in

of population growth across the counties

Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai Counties grew at

shifted after the 1970s, when the State of

higher rates than the population in Honolulu

Hawaii Land Use Commission implemented

County (exhibit 2.5). During the decade,

Exhibit 2.5. Population in Hawaii for the Total Population and the Native Hawaiian Population 2000-2010

Total Population

Native Hawaiian Population

Total

Alone

Multiracial

Population, 2010 (thousands)

Hawai

1,360

290

80

210

Hawaii County

185

55

16

39

Honolulu County

953

182

48

134

Kauai County

67

16

5

11

Maui County

155

37

11

25

Pct. of Total Population, 2010

Hawai

100

21

6

15

Hawaii County

100

30

9

21

Honolulu County

100

19

5

14

Kauai County

100

24

8

16

Maui County

100

24

7

16

Pct. Change in Population,

2000-2010

Hawai

12

21

0

31

Hawaii County

24

28

9

37

Honolulu County

9

19

-3

29

Kauai County

15

19

3

29

Maui County

21

23

0

37

Source: U.S. Census Bureau: State and County QuickFacts, 2010

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Honolulu County grew only 9 percent

Mobility

compared with rates of 24 percent for

Hawaii County, 21 percent for Maui, and 15

Migration can be a major factor in

percent for Kauai.

population change over time. Mikelsons et

al. (1995) used the U.S. Census Bureau’s

Compared with other residents of Hawaii,

Public Use Microdata Sample files to

Native Hawaiians are more likely to live

examine net migration flows for the Native

outside Honolulu County. In 2010, 63 percent

Hawaiian population between the counties

of Native Hawaiians lived in Honolulu County

and the U.S. mainland between 1985 and

compared with 70 percent of all residents.

1990. They identified three important

Although they were underrepresented in

trends. First, the state lost about 1,800

Honolulu County, Native Hawaiians were

Native Hawaiians to the mainland, 1.5

overrepresented in Hawaii County: 19

percent of the population more than 5 years

percent of Native Hawaiians lived there

of age. Second, Honolulu County lost about

compared with 14 percent of all residents.

2,600 Native Hawaiians (3 percent of the

Smaller shares of Native Hawaiians lived in

county’s Native Hawaiian population) to the

Maui (13 percent) and Kauai (6 percent).

other counties. Third, Hawaii County gained

nearly 1,200 Native Hawaiians from the

Like the state population overall, the Native

other counties and the mainland.

Hawaiian population is growing most rapidly

outside of Honolulu County. From 2000

The research team was not able to conduct

to 2010, the Native Hawaiian population

a similar analysis for this study. Instead, the

grew 28 percent in Hawaii County and 23

team examined selected census indicators

percent in Maui County (compared with

on residence 1 year before the census and

24 and 21 percent for the total population

the date the household moved into the

in those counties, respectively). Because

home as proxies for mobility. Across these

the Native Hawaiian population grew by a

indicators, the findings consistently showed

larger percentage than the total population

that the Native Hawaiian population is

in Honolulu County (19 percent for Native

slightly less mobile than the other residents

Hawaiians compared with only 9 percent for

of Hawaii population. First, Native Hawaiians

the total population), Native Hawaiians still

were more likely to live in the same place as

accounted for 19 percent of the population

in the previous year. In Hawaii, during the

of Honolulu County in 2010.

2006-to-2010 period, 86 percent of Native

Hawaiians lived in the same place 1 year

Much of this growth was concentrated

before the survey data collection, which was

among the Native Hawaiian multiracial

slightly higher than the rate for residents of

population. The Native Hawaiian-alone

Hawaii (84 percent). The Native Hawaiian

population remained constant during the

share varied by only a small margin, from

decade in the state overall, and changes

85 percent in Maui County to 87 percent in

in that group by county were modest: an

Kauai County.

increase of 9 percent in Hawaii County and

3 percent in Kauai County, with no change

Second, if they moved, Native Hawaiians

in Maui County and a loss of 3 percent

were more likely to still live in the same

in Honolulu County. The Native Hawaiian

county as in the previous year. Of those

multiracial population, however, grew 37

Native Hawaiians living in a different place

percent in Hawaii and Maui Counties and 29

than in the previous year, the majority (84

percent in Kauai and Honolulu Counties.

percent) were still living in the same county

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Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

compared with only 56 percent among

one-half (48 percent) of Native Hawaiian

residents of Hawaii. The Native Hawaiian

households had moved into their current

share was between 84 and 87 percent in

residences before 2000 compared with 44

Hawaii, Honolulu, and Maui Counties but was

percent of residents of Hawaii. Among the

much lower (74 percent) in Kauai County.

counties, Kauai had the highest proportion

(53 percent) of Native Hawaiians moving

Third, Native Hawaiians were also more

in before 2000 and Hawaii County had the

likely to have moved into their homes

lowest (45 percent).

before 2000. From 2006 to 2010, nearly

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Section 3. Demographic,

(under age 18) and smaller shares of

seniors (age 65 and older), than is the

Social, and Economic

residents of Hawaii population.

•  Native Hawaiian households are larger

Conditions

than residents of Hawaii households.

•  Native Hawaiian households are more

likely to be families with children than are

This section of the report describes

residents of Hawaii households.

the demographic, social, and economic

conditions of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii,

•  Native Hawaiians have lower levels

including age structure, household size and

of educational attainment than do

type, educational attainment, employment

residents of Hawaii, with larger shares

levels, income, and poverty. Native Hawaiians

having attained no higher than a high

and residents of Hawaii are compared across

school diploma or general educational

these domains at the state and county levels

development (GED) certificate and smaller

from 2000 to 2010. Given the significance

shares having attained a bachelor’s or

of the Great Recession to the national

graduate degree.

economy during this decade, this section

•  Native Hawaiians participate in the

also examines employment levels, income,

civilian labor force at higher rates than

and poverty to better understand the Great

do residents of Hawaii (the latter have

Recession’s impact on Native Hawaiians.

higher rates of military participation, given

Comparing census data across years can

the U.S. Department of Defense’s strong

necessitate the use of different data sets.

presence in the state), but they work in

For the first set of topics (age structure,

lower-wage service industry jobs and

household size, and household type), the

have higher unemployment rates.

research team used the 2000 and 2010

•  Although improvements have been made

decennial censuses because these topics

during the 2000-to-2010 decade, Native

are fully covered in both years. For the other

Hawaiians have lower incomes, higher

topics (educational attainment, employment

rates of assistance receipt, and higher

levels, income, and poverty), the team

poverty rates than do residents of Hawaii.

compared 2000 decennial census long-

form data with the 2006-to-2010 American

•  Native Hawaiians were disproportionately

Community Survey (ACS) 5-year estimates

hurt by the Great Recession when compared

selected population tables. To examine the

with residents of Hawaii. From 2008 to

impact of the Great Recession, the research

2011, the economic conditions for Native

team used 2008 and 2011 ACS 1-year

Hawaiians worsened across all the indicators

estimates to cover the periods just before

examined, increasing their employment,

and after that recession.

income, and poverty challenges.

Key Findings

Age Distribution

Key findings from this section include—

The Native Hawaiian population tends to

be younger than the residents of Hawaii

•  The Native Hawaiian population is

population (exhibit 3.1). In 2010, the share

younger, with larger shares of children

of the Native Hawaiian population under

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

age 20 was 39 percent compared with only

compared with 16 percent of residents of

21 percent among the residents of Hawaii

Hawaii. This pattern held consistently across

population. This pattern was similar across

counties, with about 7 percent of the Native

counties: the Native Hawaiian share ranged

Hawaiian populations of Hawaii, Kauai, and

from 38 percent in Honolulu County to 41

Maui Counties and about 8 percent of the

percent in Hawaii and Kauai Counties in

Native Hawaiian population of Honolulu

2010, and it was consistently about double

County falling into this age group compared

the share of residents of Hawaii. Further,

with 18 percent of the residents of Hawaii

this pattern did not change much during

populations of Hawaii and Kauai Counties, 16

the 2000-to-2010 decade. The share of

percent of the residents of Hawaii population

the population that was less than 20 years

in Honolulu County, and 15 percent of the

old declined by similar margins during

residents of Hawaii population in Maui

the decade among Native Hawaiians and

County. At the state level and across most of

residents of Hawaii (3 and 2 percent,

the counties, both the Native Hawaiian and

respectively), so the difference between the

residents of Hawaii shares increased about 1

two groups stayed about the same.

percentage point.

In addition, the share of the Native Hawaiian

Higher birth rates and shorter life spans

population age 65 and older is much

among Native Hawaiians residing in Hawaii

smaller than the share among the residents

compared with other residents in Hawaii

of Hawaii population. In 2010, 7 percent

help to explain this pattern. According to

of Native Hawaiians were 65 or older

Exhibit 3.1. Share of Population by Age Group and Native Hawaiian Identification, 2010

40

35

30

25

Native

Hawaiian

20

Resident

of Hawaii

15

Percent of the population

10

5

0

Less than 20 years

65 years and older

Age group

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2010 decennial census.

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

the ACS 2006-to-2010 selected population

defined as having five or more members.

tables, in the United States overall, the birth

In 2010, the share of Native Hawaiian

rate is 56 births per 1,000 women between

households that were large (27 percent)

the ages of 15 and 50. In Hawaii, the rate for

was almost twice that of residents of Hawaii

the total population is slightly higher, at 59

households (14 percent). The Native Hawaiian

births. Among Native Hawaiian women in

share of large households was higher than

Hawaii, the rate is substantially higher, at 71

the residents of Hawaii share in every

births per 1,000 women. Further, although

county. For more information on county-

life expectancy for Native Hawaiians has

level variation, see appendix A. The change

increased by 11.8 years, to 74.3 years, since

in the shares of large households during the

1950, it remains 6.2 years less than the life

decade was small, with the Native Hawaiian

expectancy for the state (Look et al., 2013)

share increasing only 1 percentage point from

and between 4.7 and 11.8 years less than

2000 to 2010 and the share for residents of

other substantial racial groups in Hawaii,

Hawaii holding constant.

including Caucasians, Chinese, Filipinos, and

Japanese (State of Hawaii, 2013: table 2.10).

Household Type

Life expectancies notably have improved for

Overall, Native Hawaiian households were

all racial groups over time, but the disparity

more likely to be families with children, both

between Native Hawaiians and other groups

in married couple-headed and single parent-

has remained consistent in magnitude since

headed households, than were residents of

the 1950s (Ka’opua et al., 2011).

Hawaii households.12 In 2010, 23 percent of

Household Size

Native Hawaiian households were headed by

a married couple and included children under

In Hawaii, Native Hawaiian households

age 18 compared with 20 percent of residents

tend to be larger than other households. In

of Hawaii households. Further, 15 percent of

2010, the average size for Native Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian households were headed by a

households was 4.1 persons compared

single parent with children, which is more than

with 2.7 persons for residents of Hawaii

twice the rate among other residents of Hawaii

households. The average size varied by a

households (6 percent). The Native Hawaiian

small amount among the different counties.

share of both married couple households with

The average Native Hawaiian household size

children and single-parent households with

ranged from 3.9 persons in Hawaii and Maui

children is higher than the share for residents

Counties to 4.2 persons in Honolulu County,

of Hawaii households in every county. The

and the residents of Hawaii household size

shares of both married couple and single-

ranged from 2.4 persons in Hawaii County to  parent households with children have declined 2.8 persons in Honolulu County. The average

during the decade among Native Hawaiian

household size stayed consistent during

and residents of Hawaii households by similar

the 2000-to-2010 decade at the state and

margins (about 4 percentage points for

county levels for both Native Hawaiian and

married couple households with children and

residents of Hawaii households.

about 0.5 to 1 percentage point for single-

parent households with children).

Consistent with having larger average

household sizes, a greater share of Native

During the same period (2000 to 2010),

Hawaiian households were large households,

other family household arrangements

12  The U.S. Census Bureau defines a family as a householder and one or more persons related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption (http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/about/).

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

became more common among Native

or an associate’s degree (about 31 percent

Hawaiians and residents of Hawaii. In 2010,

among both groups) in Hawaii during the

Native Hawaiian households had a higher

2006-to-2010 period, but Native Hawaiians

share of households (15 percent) in other

had much lower rates of attainment of a

family arrangements than residents of Hawaii  bachelor’s or graduate degree. During the households (10 percent).13 This difference

2006-to-2010 period, only 15 percent of

persisted in all four counties analyzed in this

Native Hawaiians had at least a bachelor’s

report, and the variation among counties

degree, which is less than one-half the rate

was small (the Native Hawaiian household

(32 percent) for residents of Hawaii. Although

share ranged from 13 to 16 percent, and the

variation exists in these shares by county,

residents of Hawaii share ranged from 8 to

the disparity persists in all four counties.

11 percent). During the decade, the share of

The Native Hawaiian share was lowest in

other family households in Hawaii increased

Maui County, where only 9 percent of Native

for both Native Hawaiian and residents of

Hawaiians had at least a bachelor’s degree,

Hawaii households, but the Native Hawaiian

and was highest in Honolulu County, where

share increased by a slightly larger amount,

the share reached 16 percent. The residents of

increasing 2 percentage points from 2000

Hawaii share ranged from 26 percent in Kauai

to 2010 compared with a 1-percentage point

County to 34 percent in Honolulu County.

increase for residents of Hawaii households.

During the 2000-to-2010 decade, the

Educational Attainment

educational attainment for both groups

improved. At the state level, the share of the

Overall, Native Hawaiians have lower levels

population without a high school diploma

of educational attainment than do residents

declined about 5 percentage points for both

of Hawaii. Although similar shares (about 10

Native Hawaiians and residents of Hawaii.

percent) of the Native Hawaiian and residents  The shares for higher levels of educational of Hawaii populations had not received a high  attainment (high school diploma, some school diploma during the 2006-to-2010

college, and bachelor’s degree or higher)

period, nearly one-half (44 percent) of the

correspondingly increased for both groups.

Native Hawaiian population had attained no

The improvement for Native Hawaiians

higher than a high school diploma (or GED)

was more concentrated at the high school

compared with only 26 percent of residents

diploma and some college levels; the

of Hawaii (exhibit 3.2). The Native Hawaiian

improvement for residents of Hawaii was

share that had a high school diploma or GED

primarily in the share of the population with

but no higher education was consistently

at least a bachelor’s degree (exhibit 3.3). The

higher than the share for residents of Hawaii

Native Hawaiian share of the population with

in all four counties. The size of the disparity

only a high school diploma increased about

varied. In Kauai County, the disparity was the

1 percentage point, and the residents of

smallest (11 percentage points) and, in Maui

Hawaii share stayed about the same during

County, the disparity was the largest (23

the decade. The Native Hawaiian share

percentage points).

with some college or an associate’s degree

Similar shares of Native Hawaiians and

increased about 2 percentage points, and

residents of Hawaii completed some college

the residents of Hawaii share increased only

1 percentage point. By contrast, the Native

13  The “other family” category is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as male- or female-headed family households without children under age 18 (Pettit et al., 2014).

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Exhibit 3.2. Educational Attainment by Native Hawaiian Identification in the State of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010

45

40

35

30

25

Native

Hawaiian

Resident

20

of Hawaii

15

Percent of population age 25 and older

10

5

0

Without a high school diploma or school GED

With a high school diploma or school GED

With some college or associate’s degree

With a bachelor’s degree or graduate degree

Educational attainment category

GED = general educational development.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables Hawaiian share with a bachelor’s or graduate

points. The corresponding improvement at

degree increased about 2 percentage points,

the other levels was primarily in the share

and the residents of Hawaii share increased

of Native Hawaiians with some college or

4 percentage points.

an associate’s degree. That share increased

5 percentage points, but the share with a

This general trend was observed in three of

bachelor’s or graduate degree increased

the four counties included in this analysis,

only 1 percentage point.

with Kauai County being the exception.

There, the residents of Hawaii population

Labor Force Characteristics

followed the general trend observed at the

state level (described previously). The Native

This subsection examines several indicators

Hawaiian population exhibited a different

related to employment. The state of Hawaii

pattern of change during the decade.

is compared with the United States overall to

The share without a high school diploma

identify ways in which Hawaii is unique, and

declined only 1 percentage point, and the

the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii

share with a high school diploma but no

is compared with the other residents of

higher education declined 6 percentage

Hawaii population. The analysis specifically

considers the following indicators.

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Exhibit 3.3. Percent Change in Share by Educational Attainment Level and Native Hawaiian Identification, 2000 and 2006 to 2010

4

3

With some college or associate’s degree

2

1

Without a high school diploma

or school GED

0

Native

With a high school diploma or school GED

With a bachedlor’s degree

Hawaiian

or graduate degree

Resident

-1

of Hawaii

-2

Percent of population age 25 and older

-3

-4

-5

-6

GED = general educational development.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables

•  Labor force participation rate: the share of

Comparing Hawaii With the United

the population age 16 and older in the labor

States

force that was either working or looking for

work in either civilian jobs or in the military.

The labor force characteristics of the state of

Hawaii differ from those of the United States

•  Civilian labor force participation rate: the

as a whole in a few ways. The civilian labor

share of the population age 16 and older

force participation rate in Hawaii (63 percent)

in the civilian labor force that was either

was slightly less than the national rate of 65

working or looking for work.

percent during the 2006-to-2010 period. The

•  Employment rate: the percentage of

employment rates for the United States and

population age 16 and older that was

Hawaii were about the same, both around

employed in civilian jobs.

59.5 percent, but the unemployment rate for

Hawaii (6 percent) was less than the U.S. rate

•  Unemployment rate: the share of the

(8 percent). The most significant difference is

civilian labor force that was unemployed.

that Hawaii has a large military presence, with

each branch of the military having military

•  Military participation rate: the share of the

bases in the state (http://militarybases.com/

population age 16 and older in the military.

hawaii/). In Hawaii, about 4 percent of the

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

population age 16 and older is in the Armed

at about 7 percentage points. The share for

Forces, about 8 times the 0.5-percent rate for  both groups increased about 3 percentage the United States as a whole.

points for Native Hawaiians and 2 percentage

points for residents of Hawaii.

Comparing Within Hawaii

Military participation accounted for a much

When the labor force characteristics of the

larger share of the residents of Hawaii labor

Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii were

force participation than it did of the Native

compared with those of the residents of

Hawaiians' labor force participation. During

Hawaii population, the analysis showed that

the 2006-to-2010 period, less than 1 percent

Native Hawaiians had higher labor force

of Native Hawaiians residing in Hawaii were

participation and employment rates but that

in the military compared with 4 percent of

they also had higher unemployment rates

residents of Hawaii. Military participation was

and were more concentrated in low-paid

overwhelmingly concentrated in Honolulu

service jobs than were residents of Hawaii.14

County, the home of most of the military

The remainder of this subsection explores

installations in the state (http://militarybases.

each of these trends in turn.

com/hawaii/). In Honolulu County, 1 percent of Native Hawaiians and 6 percent of residents

First, the Native Hawaiian population

of Hawaii were in the Armed Forces. In the

participated in the labor force (including

other three counties, the Native Hawaiian rate

civilian and military) at higher rates than the

was 0.2 percent and the residents of Hawaii

residents of Hawaii population: 69 percent

rate ranged from 0.1 percent in Hawaii County

of Native Hawaiians age 16 and older were

to 0.4 percent in Kauai County. During the

in the labor force compared with 67 percent

2000-to-2010 decade, military participation

of residents of Hawaii (exhibit 3.4). Although

for residents of Hawaii decreased about 1

the Native Hawaiian rate was higher in every

percentage point, from 5 percent in 2000, but

county, the size of the difference between the

the share of Native Hawaiians in the military

two populations during the decade varied by

stayed about the same.

county. In Honolulu County, the disparity was

the smallest, at about 1 percentage point. In

By contrast, Native Hawaiians residing in Hawaii

Hawaii County, the disparity was the largest,

had much higher rates of participation in the

14  The labor force participation rate includes both employed and unemployed workers. To be classified as unemployed, however, one must either be not working and seeking employment or laid off from a previous job and waiting to return.

Exhibit 3.4. Labor Force Characteristics for the State of Hawaii, by Native Hawaiian Identification, 2000 and 2006 to 2010

2006-to-2010 Rates

Percent Change From 2000

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawai

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawai

Percent of population age 16 and older

In labor force

68.7

66.5

2.8

2.2

In civilian labor force

68.1

62.1

2.6

2.7

Unemployment rate

9.1

4.8

– 0.7

– 0.6

Employment rate

61.9

59.1

2.8

3

In military

0.6

4.4

0.2

– 0.5

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000; U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

civilian labor force. During the 2006-to-2010

also lowest in Honolulu County, at 4 percent,

period, the Native Hawaiian rate of 68 percent

but was highest in Hawaii County, at 7 percent.

substantially exceeded the 62-percent rate for

During the 2000-to-2010 decade, both rates

residents of Hawaii. The Native Hawaiian rate

at the state level declined about 1 percentage

was higher than the residents of Hawaii rate in

point, from 10 percent for Native Hawaiians

every county, but variation existed. The civilian

and 6 percent for residents of Hawaii in 2000.

labor force participation rate was lowest for

Native Hawaiians and residents of Hawaii in

The higher unemployment for Native

Honolulu County, where the rates were 67 and

Hawaiians may be related to the industries

61 percent, respectively. The rates were highest

in which they tended to be employed.

in Maui County, where the Native Hawaiian rate

During the 2006-to-2010 period, the highest

was 72 percent and the residents of Hawaii

concentrations of Native Hawaiians were

rate was 70 percent. During the 2000-to-2010

employed in four industries: (1) construction;

decade, the civilian labor force participation

(2) retail services; (3) educational services,

rate increased for both groups. In 2000, the

health care, and social assistance; and

rates were 65 percent for Native Hawaiians and

(4) the arts, entertainment, recreation,

59 percent for residents of Hawaii. Because

accommodation, and food services industries.

the rates improved by similar amounts for both

These four industries, which accounted for

groups, the size of the difference between

approximately 60 percent of Native Hawaiian

them has held constant at about 6 percent

employment in Hawaii, are vulnerable to

during the decade.

shifts in the economy that can affect local

consumption of goods and services, tourist

Native Hawaiians also had a higher

volume, and infrastructure development. The

employment rate than did residents

seasonal nature of tourism may make Native

of Hawaii. About 62 percent of Native

Hawaiians particularly susceptible to periodic

Hawaiians were employed during the 2006-

unemployment. Although the significant

to-2010 period; the rate for residents of

military presence in the state and Honolulu

Hawaii was about 59 percent. This trend

County in particular provides some ongoing

held in three of the four counties, with

level of demand for goods and services

Maui County being the exception. The

(Hosek, Litovitz, and Resnick, 2011), Native

employment rates for both groups increased

Hawaiians are less likely than the residents of

about 3 percentage points during the 2000-

Hawaii to participate in the military, which is

to-2010 decade. In 2000, the employment

less responsive to economic shifts.

rate was 59 percent for Native Hawaiians

and 56 percent for residents of Hawaii.

Income and Poverty

The Native Hawaiian population also had a

In general, Native Hawaiians residing in

much higher unemployment rate than did the

Hawaii had (1) lower incomes, (2) higher

residents of Hawaii population. During the

rates of receipt for means-tested assistance

2006-to-2010 period, the Native Hawaiian

programs, and (3) higher poverty rates than

unemployment rate was 9 percent, nearly

did residents of Hawaii. This subsection first

twice the 5-percent rate for residents of

provides context for income levels in Hawaii

Hawaii. The Native Hawaiian unemployment

by comparing Hawaii with the United States

rate varied appreciably by county. It was

overall, and then analyzes the differences

lowest in Honolulu County, at 7 percent, and

between Native Hawaiians and residents

highest in Maui County, at 12 percent. The

of Hawaii in terms of income, receipt of

unemployment rate for residents of Hawaii was

assistance, and poverty.

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Comparing Hawaii With the

Native Hawaiian households received some

United States

form of public cash assistance income (for

example, through the federal Temporary

Household incomes in Hawaii, in general,

Assistance for Needy Families program or

were higher than in the United States.

the State of Hawaii Department of Human

During the 2006-to-2010 period, the median

Services General Assistance program),

income for all households in the state of

which was more than twice the 3-percent

Hawaii was about $66,400 per year, about

rate for residents of Hawaii households.

$14,500 higher than the median income

Native Hawaiian households also had higher

for all households in the United States

rates of receiving benefits from the federal

($51,900). Although this difference may

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

seem to indicate a higher level of economic

(SNAP) during this period: 15 percent of

prosperity in Hawaii, it does not account for

Native Hawaiian households received SNAP

the higher cost of living in Hawaii. The cost of

benefits compared with 6 percent of residents

living, as reported in table 728, Cost of Living

of Hawaii households.

Index—Selected Urban Areas (U.S. Census

Bureau, 2012), placed Honolulu, Hawaii as the

In addition to having lower incomes and higher

third highest in the country, at 1.7 times the

rates of assistance receipt, Native Hawaiians

national average, which was exceeded by

tended to have higher poverty rates compared

only Brooklyn and Manhattan in New York.15

with residents of Hawaii.16 During the 2006-to-

2010 period, the poverty rate among Native

Comparing Within Hawaii

Hawaiians residing in Hawaii was 12 percent,

and the rate among residents of Hawaii was

Within Hawaii, Native Hawaiians had a

9 percent. This general trend held in three of

lower median income than all households.

the four counties, with Kauai County being the

The median income for Native Hawaiian

exception. There, the poverty rate for residents

households was about $62,900 during the

of Hawaii (9 percent) exceeded the Native

2006-to-2010 period compared with about

Hawaiian rate (8 percent) by a small margin.

$66,400 for all households in Hawaii. In

every county, the Native Hawaiian median

Although the poverty rate for Native Hawaiians

household income was less than the median

tended to be higher than the rate for residents

for all households. The size of the disparity

of Hawaii, the extent of the disparity closed

varied by county, from only $1,000 in Hawaii

during the decade. From 2000 to the 2006-

County to $11,000 in Maui County.

to-2010 period, the poverty rate among

residents of Hawaii held constant, at about

Further, Native Hawaiian households in

9 percent. The Native Hawaiian poverty rate

Hawaii accessed means-tested assistance

declined 4 percentage points from 16 percent

programs at higher rates than did residents

in 2000, which closed some of the gap

of Hawaii households. For example, during

between the two groups on this measure.

the 2006-to-2010 period, 7 percent of

15  The Cost of Living (COL) Index measures relative price levels for consumer goods and services in selected locations across the country.

The goods and services captured in the index include grocery items, housing, utilities, transportation, health care, and miscellaneous goods and services. The score or index for each locale is the percentage of the national average for that category of goods and services or all goods and services as a composite. In 2010, Honolulu’s COL was 166 percent of the national average. For comparison, COLs in other urban areas are 164 percent in San Francisco, California; 128 percent in Anchorage, Alaska; 113 percent in Chapel Hill, North Carolina; 101

percent in Cleveland, Ohio; and 87 percent in Indianapolis, Indiana. In 2010, only two locations in the index had a higher COL than Honolulu: Brooklyn, New York (182 percent) and Manhattan, New York (217 percent) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011: table 728).

16  The Census Bureau uses money income thresholds to determine poverty. These thresholds are based on family size and composition and are not adjusted for local cost-of-living variation. They are not based on individual income, and all members of a family are assigned to the same threshold regardless of their personal income. Thresholds are updated for inflation by using the Consumer Price Index.

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Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

How the Native Hawaiian Population  to 2011, the Native Hawaiian employment Fared in the Great Recession

rate dropped 7 percentage points, but the

residents of Hawaii rate decreased only

So far, the analysis has compared the

3 percentage points. Because the Native

conditions of Native Hawaiians with those

Hawaiian employment rate declined more

of residents of Hawaii from 2000 to 2010 or

than the rate for residents of Hawaii, much

from 2006 to 2010, but it has not addressed

of the Native Hawaiian population’s previous

the impact of the Great Recession on Native

advantage on this indicator was eroded.

Hawaiians. This subsection uses ACS 1-year

By 2011, the employment rate for Native

estimates from 2008 and 2011 to examine

Hawaiians was 58 percent and for residents

how the Great Recession affected the Native

of Hawaii it was 57 percent.

Hawaiian population living in Hawaii by

examining five indicators: (1) the employment  The Native Hawaiian unemployment rate rate, (2) the unemployment rate, (3) the rate

also increased appreciably during the Great

of cash public assistance receipt, (4) the

Recession. In 2008, the Native Hawaiian

rate of SNAP benefit receipt, and (5) the

population already had an unemployment

poverty rate. For the first four indicators, the

rate (6 percent) that was higher than that

conditions of the Native Hawaiian population

of residents of Hawaii (4 percent), and the

were compared with that of the residents of

Great Recession’s impact on unemployment

Hawaii population. For poverty rate, however,

was more severe among Native Hawaiians

the Native Hawaiian rate was compared with

than residents of Hawaii. The Native Hawaiian

that of the total population of Hawaii because  unemployment rate more than doubled, the data needed to calculate residents of

reaching 13 percent in 2011. The residents of

Hawaii rates were unavailable.17 Across all

Hawaii rate increased as well, but it increased

these indicators, the analysis found greater

only 3 percentage points, to 7 percent in

impacts of the Great Recession on Native

2011.

Hawaiians (exhibit 3.5).

The disparities in cash public assistance

The employment rate for Native Hawaiians in

receipt between the Native Hawaiian

2008 was about 65 percent and for residents  population and the residents of Hawaii of Hawaii was about 60 percent. From 2008

population also increased during the course

17  The U.S. Census Bureau provides the poverty rates for Native Hawaiians in Hawaii, but it does not provide the raw counts, so it was not possible to tabulate the statistics for the non-Native Hawaiian population (termed in this report “residents of Hawaii”).

Exhibit 3.5. Economic Indicators for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, 2008 and 2011

2008

2011

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawai

Difference

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawai

Difference

Employment rate

65.3

59.8

5.5

58.2

56.9

1.3

Unemployment rate

5.6

3.7

1.9

12.7

6.5

6.2

Percent with cash public

6.4

2.6

3.8

9.7

3.3

6.4

assistance income

Percent with SNAP benefits

14.6

6.0

8.6

22.8

8.7

14.1

SNAP = Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 and 2011 American Community Survey 1-year estimates HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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22

Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

of the Great Recession. In 2008, about

increased only 3 percentage points, to 9

6 percent of Native Hawaiians received

percent, substantially increasing the gap

cash public assistance income compared

between the two groups on this measure.

with only 3 percent of residents of Hawaii.

Between 2008 and 2011, the Native Hawaiian

In 2008, the Native Hawaiian poverty rate

rate increased to 10 percent, but the rate for

(10 percent) was slightly higher than the

residents of Hawaii stayed about the same.

rate for the total population of the state of

Hawaii (9 percent) (exhibit 3.6). Between

In 2008, about 15 percent of Native

2008 and 2011, however, the Native Hawaiian

Hawaiians received SNAP benefits, but only

poverty rate rose 7 percentage points to

6 percent of residents of Hawaii did. By

reach 17 percent in 2011. By contrast, the

2011, 23 percent of Native Hawaiians were

total population rate rose only 3 percentage

receiving SNAP (an 8 percentage point

points to reach 12 percent in 2011.

increase), but the rate for residents of Hawaii

Exhibit 3.6. Poverty Rate for Total and Native Hawaiian Populations, 2008 to 2011

Total

Native Hawaiian

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

Percent of the population for whom poverty status is determined

2

0

2008

2011

Year

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 and 2011 American Community Survey 1-year estimates HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

23

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Section 4. Housing

lower for rental units, suggesting a

tighter housing market.

Conditions and Needs

•  Native Hawaiian households were more

likely to live in older housing and more

likely to live in single-family detached

Using U.S. Census Bureau data sources

homes than were residents of Hawaii

and information gleaned from interviews

households.

with stakeholders in Hawaii, this section

•  The Native Hawaiian rate of homeownership

describes the housing market, including

lagged behind the rate for residents

the types, age, size, and values of housing

of Hawaii, despite a preference for

in Hawaii in comparison with the market in

homeownership over renting among Native

the United States as a whole and compares

Hawaiians. Further, when Native Hawaiians

housing information for Native Hawaiians

owned homes, those homes tended to

and residents of Hawaii. The analysis looks at

be valued at less than homes owned by

selected indicators of housing problems and

residents of Hawaii, both at the state level

needs, including overcrowding, affordability,

and within every county.

and kitchen and plumbing facilities

problems. In addition, the results from 2000

•  Native Hawaiian households faced higher

and 2010 were compared with those from

rates of facilities problems compared

1990 reported in Mikelsons et al. (1995). The

with residents of Hawaii households,

data presented for Native Hawaiians in this

as evidenced by their higher rates of

section include all respondents in Hawaii

incomplete plumbing and incomplete

who self-identified as Native Hawaiian in the

kitchens. Native Hawaiians also

census, including Native Hawaiians residing

experienced higher rates of overcrowding,

on the Hawaiian home lands. Section 5

but they had slightly lower rates of

presents data pertaining specifically to

affordability problems.

housing needs and conditions on the

Hawaiian home lands.

•  Affordability challenges were more

acute in Hawaii than in the United States

Key Findings

overall, with the percentage of households

that were cost burdened among both

Key findings from this section include—

Native Hawaiian and residents of

•  Housing stock growth in Hawaii was

Hawaii populations (40 and 42 percent,

similar to the rate of growth in the United

respectively) surpassing the national

States overall. Within the state, Honolulu

cost burden rate of 36 percent. Despite

County saw the least new development,

the slightly lower rate among Native

reflecting the State’s development

Hawaiians, stakeholders from a range of

priorities in the other counties.

organizations noted the importance of

the affordability problem among Native

•  Vacancies in Hawaii were dominated

Hawaiians and indicated that they cope

by vacation homes (that is, units for

with this challenge through extended-

seasonal, recreational, or occasional use).

family living or overcrowding, taking

Vacancy rates among units available for

on additional jobs, or moving to less

permanent residences in Hawaii were

expensive areas farther from employment.

similar to rates in the United States

overall for homeowner units and were

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

•  Homelessness among Native Hawaiians

the intended purpose of the housing stock.

was a significant problem. Although

Housing on the coast or near other resort-

they were not frequently chronically

type areas tends to cater to the short-term

homeless, Native Hawaiians who were

rental and vacation home market. Primary

homeless were often working but could

residences predominate in the inland areas.

not afford housing. They ended up

Size and style may reflect the intended

doubled up or living in tents, shelters,

purposes (for example, studio apartments

cars, or garages, and they were

intended for short-term rentals in a high-

disproportionately represented among

rise condominium-style building versus

the homeless population.

four-bedroom, single-family homes with full

kitchens and storage space).

Housing Stock

The total number of housing units in Hawaii

The housing stock in Hawaii includes a

increased 13 percent from 465,000 in 2000

variety of types, such as single-family

to 520,000 in 2010 (exhibit 4.1). This increase

detached homes, townhouses, and

is similar to the rate of housing stock growth

multifamily housing such as apartments.

in the United States overall (14 percent). The

Some housing is built with the intention of

most growth occurred in Hawaii County,

serving as vacation or investment property,

and the least growth occurred in Honolulu

including short-term rentals such as

County. The low rate of growth in Honolulu

condotels and fractionals, but other housing

County reflects the State’s emphasis on

is built to serve as a principal residence for

increasing development on islands other than

year-round use.18 Location often affects

Oahu (Mikelsons et al., 1995).

18  Condotels are privately owned properties, generally small units (up to three bedrooms) built in multifamily style that share common amenities and a third-party management firm that offers, for a fee, services for the property in the manner of a hotel (for example, facilitating short-term rentals, housekeeping, maintenance). Major hotel brands have all entered the condotel market. Villas and other free-standing residences in the same arrangement are often called “fractionals” (Bradley-Hole, 2007). Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000 and 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Selected Population Tables Exhibit 4.1. Housing Stock in the State of Hawaii by County, 2000 and 2006 to 2010

600,000

500,000

400,000

Maui County

Kauai County

300,000

Hawaii County

Honolulu County

Number of Units

200,000

100,000

0

2000

2006–2010

Year

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000 and 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Selected Population Tables HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Vacancy Rate

and rental vacancy rates varied less. Across

all counties, the homeowner vacancy rate

Hawaii had a slightly higher rate of vacant

in 2010 ranged from a low of only 1 percent

units overall than did the United States, a

in Honolulu County to a high of 3 percent in

situation that was largely driven by vacancies

Hawaii County. The rate in Kauai and Maui

in seasonal or vacation homes. Vacancy

Counties was 2 percent. The rental vacancy

rates for permanent residences in Hawaii

rate varied somewhat more. Honolulu

were lower than in the United States overall,

County also had the lowest rental vacancy

suggesting a tighter housing market in Hawaii.

rate (6 percent). The rental vacancy rate in

In 2010, 12 percent of all housing units in

Hawaii and Kauai Counties was 12 percent

Hawaii were vacant compared with 11 percent

and in Maui County it was 13 percent.

of all units in the United States.19 Nearly one-

half of the vacancies in Hawaii (47 percent)

The number of housing units and vacancies

were seasonal, recreational, or occasional-use

cannot be used alone as indicators of

properties. When accounting only for units

housing availability and need. Many

that were vacant and for rent or for sale, the

factors affect the appropriateness and

vacancy rate among homeowner properties

usability of the existing housing stock to

in Hawaii was 2 percent, and the rental

the local population, including location

vacancy rate was 8 percent. The homeowner

and accessibility, size, quality, type, and

vacancy rate in Hawaii was about the same

affordability. The discussion that follows

as the rate in the United States, and the rental

sheds light on some of these factors.

rate in Hawaii was 1 percentage point lower

Homeownership

than the rate (9 percent) in the United States.

The overall, homeowner, and rental vacancy

The state of Hawaii has much lower

rates in Hawaii did not change appreciably

homeownership rates than does the

during the 2000-to-2010 decade.

United States overall. In 2010, Hawaii’s

At the county level, the share of units that

homeownership rate was 58 percent

were vacant varied considerably, but much of

compared with 65 percent for the United

the variation was because of vacation home

States as a whole. In that year, Hawaii

vacancies. In Honolulu County, only 8 percent

had the fourth lowest homeownership

of all units were vacant, but, in the remaining

rate of any state or territory, after the

counties, these shares were much higher (12

District of Columbia (42 percent), New

percent in Hawaii County, 22 percent in Kauai

York (53 percent), and California (56

County, and 23 percent in Maui County). In

percent). Homeownership is increasing

Kauai and Maui Counties, more than one-

slightly in Hawaii, but it is decreasing

half (60 and 64 percent, respectively) of the

nationwide. Between 2000 and 2010, the

vacant units were for seasonal, recreational,

homeownership rate in the United States

or occasional use. Although the shares of

declined about 1 percentage point, and the

vacation vacancies were lower in Hawaii and

homeownership rate in Hawaii increased

Honolulu Counties, they were still appreciable

about 1 percentage point.

(47 and 34 percent, respectively).

The homeownership rate among Native

Considering only nonvacation properties for

Hawaiians in Hawaii was lower than for the

sale or for rent, the county-level homeowner

state overall. In 2010, 55 percent of Native

19  In census data, housing units are considered vacant if they are habitable but unoccupied. The U.S. Census Bureau identified such units on April 1, 2010, and then confirmed they were vacant in July and August 2010 (https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-07.pdf).

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

26

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Hawaiian households were homeowners

residents of Hawaii (58 percent for Native

compared with the overall 58-percent

Hawaiians compared with 68 percent for

rate. The Native Hawaiian homeownership

residents of Hawaii).

rate did not vary appreciably by county:

it was about 58 percent in Hawaii County

It is notable that Native Hawaiian

and about 54 percent in the other three

homeownership rates remained low despite

counties. During the 2000-to-2010 decade,

a general preference for homeownership

the homeownership rate decreased in

over renting. Stakeholder interviews

both Kauai and Maui Counties (0.3 and 2

suggested that Native Hawaiians prefer

percentage points, respectively), indicating

owning to renting partly because of the

a shift toward rental in these areas. The

perception that an owner has fewer rules

homeownership rate for Hawaii and

and regulations to follow than does a

Honolulu Counties, however, increased 3 and

renter. Stakeholders indicated that access

2 percentage points, respectively.

to mortgage financing due to insufficient

income, bad credit, and limited savings for

Homeownership rates were lower for Native

a downpayment prevents Native Hawaiians

Hawaiians than for residents of Hawaii

from becoming homeowners. Stakeholders

in all counties (exhibit 4.2). The disparity

also noted that the main factors driving

was largest in Hawaii County, where the

delinquency among this population were

homeownership rate for Native Hawaiians

the loss of steady income, taking on

was 10 percentage points lower than for

subsequent consumer debt, and the high

cost of living in Hawaii.

Exhibit 4.2. Homeownership Rates for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, by County, 2010

70

60

50

40

Native

Hawaiian

Resident

30

of Hawaii

20

Percent of households owner occupied

10

5

0

State of Hawaii

Hawaii County

Honolulu County

Kauai County

Maui County

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2010

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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27

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Housing Structure Type

Within Hawaii, Native Hawaiians were more

likely to live in single-family detached

Households in Hawaii overall were more

homes and less likely to live in townhouses

likely to live in townhouses or multifamily

or multifamily housing than were residents

dwellings than in single-family detached

of Hawaii (exhibit 4.3). During the 2006-

homes and other housing types (for

to-2010 period, 71 percent of Native

example, mobile homes, recreational

Hawaiian households lived in single-family

vehicles, boats) than were households in the

detached homes compared with 63

United States as a whole. During the 2006-

percent of residents of Hawaii households.

to-2010 period, 36 percent of households

Further, although 29 percent of Native

in Hawaii lived in townhouses or multifamily

Hawaiian households lived in townhouses or

dwellings compared with only 25 percent

multifamily housing, 37 percent of residents

of households nationwide. Further, only

of Hawaii households did so during the

63 percent of households in Hawaii lived

same period. Both groups lived in other

in single-family detached homes and

housing at equally low rates of 0.2 percent.

less than 1 percent lived in other housing

During the decade, the distribution of Native

types compared with 69 and 6 percent,

Hawaiian households and residents of Hawaii

respectively, in the United States overall.

households among these three housing

types stayed about the same.

Exhibit 4.3. Percent of Units by Housing Structure Type, Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010

80

70

Native Hawaiians

Residents of Hawaii

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Single family

Townhouse/multifamily

Mobile home, boat, RV, van, etc.

Notes: Native Hawaiian Population includes Native Hawaiian alone or multiracial.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006-2010 American Community Survey Selected Population Tables HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

28

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

At the county level, Honolulu County stood

3 percentage points. Mikelsons et al.

out from the other three counties. The share

(1995) found that, in 1990, Native Hawaiian

of Native Hawaiian households in single-

households residing in Hawaii were more

family detached homes in Honolulu County

likely to live in older, larger homes than were

was the lowest (64 percent), and the share

non-Native Hawaiians, especially in rural

in townhouses or multifamily housing was

areas, and especially among homeowners.20

highest (36 percent). Although the share in

In every county, the Native Hawaiian share

single-family homes was still higher than the

living in older homes exceeded the residents

share for residents of Hawaii households in

of Hawaii share, but usually the difference

the county (56 percent), it was much lower

was small (1 or 2 percentage points). Maui

than the Native Hawaiian share in the other

County was the exception, however; there,

counties. In the remaining counties, more than

the disparity was larger, at 6 percentage

80 percent of Native Hawaiian households

points. The housing stock in Honolulu

were in single-family detached homes. This

County appeared to be the oldest, with

difference likely reflects the urbanization and

the largest shares of Native Hawaiian and

development in Honolulu County.

residents of Hawaii households living in pre-

1960 units (23 and 20 percent, respectively).

Housing Age and Size

Compared with residents of Hawaii, Native

The housing stock in Hawaii overall is newer

Hawaiians were less likely to live in very small

and smaller than the stock nationwide.

units (two or fewer rooms) or large units (six

During the 2006-to-2010 period, 81 percent

or more rooms). During the 2006-to-2010

of occupied housing units in Hawaii were

period, about 8 percent of Native Hawaiian

built after 1960 compared with 69 percent

households lived in units with two or fewer

of occupied housing units in the United

rooms compared with about 10 percent

States overall. During the same period, only

among residents of Hawaii households. A

35 percent of housing units in Hawaii had

smaller share of Native Hawaiian households

six or more rooms, but 52 percent of units in

(33 percent) lived in units with six or more

the United States did. Further, although only

rooms than residents of Hawaii households

4 percent of units in the United States had

(36 percent). The remainder, the majority

two or fewer rooms, 10 percent of units in

of both groups, lived in three- to five-room

Hawaii were that size.

units (58 percent for Native Hawaiians and

Within Hawaii, Native Hawaiian households

54 percent for residents of Hawaii). This

tended to live in older homes at slightly

trend held in all four counties. During the

higher rates than did residents of Hawaii

decade, a large decline occurred in the share

households (exhibit 4.4). During the

of households in units with two or fewer

2006-to-2010 period, 21 percent of Native

rooms for both groups. The Native Hawaiian

Hawaiian households lived in units built

share declined 10 percentage points, and

before 1960 compared with 19 percent

the residents of Hawaii share declined 8

of residents of Hawaii households. This

percentage points. The shares in units with

disparity grew during the decade: the share

three to five rooms and units with six or more

of Native Hawaiians in these units declined

rooms each increased 5 percentage points for

about 1 percentage point, but the share for

Native Hawaiians and 4 percentage points for

residents of Hawaii households dropped

residents of Hawaii.

20  Mikelsons et al. (1995), Section 4, “Housing Characteristics in 1990,” subsections “Age of Housing” and “Number of Units in Structure” and Table 4.2: Age of Housing Native Hawaiians and Non-Natives 1990.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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29

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Exhibit 4.4. Percent of Native Hawaiian Households Living in Units Built Before 1960, 2000 and 2006 to 2010

30

25

20

15

2000

2006–2010

10

Percent of households

5

0

State of Hawaii

Hawaii County

Honolulu County

Kauai County

Maui County

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000; U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates Housing Values and Rents

value at the state level for Native Hawaiian

households was $463,800, nearly $75,000

Housing prices in Hawaii are among the

less than the median for all households.

highest in the nation. Although the median

Median gross rent for Native Hawaiian

home value nationwide was $188,400 during

households was $1,084, nearly $200 less

the 2006-to-2010 period, the median home

than the median for all households. Gross

value in Hawaii was nearly three times that

rent varied by a small margin at the county

amount ($537,400). Further, the median

level, from around $900 in Hawaii County to

gross rent nationwide was $841, but, in

$1,200 in Maui County.

Hawaii, it was about 1.5 times that amount

($1,260). Within the state, the median home

The median home value for Native Hawaiian

value for all households ranged considerably

households varied more appreciably by

by county. It was lowest in Hawaii County,

county, with three counties having roughly

at $361,400, and highest in Maui County,

similar median home values and one (Hawaii

at $614,600. Honolulu and Kauai Counties

County) having much lower values (exhibit

fell in between, with median values of

4.5). For Native Hawaiian households, the

$559,000 and $583,200, respectively, for

median home value was highest in Honolulu

all households. Median gross rent, however,

County ($508,400), with Kauai and Maui

varied much less: it was around $1,100 in

Counties following close behind, at $499,100

Hawaii County, $1,200 in Kauai County, and

and $492,000, respectively. The median

$1,300 in Honolulu and Maui Counties.

home value for Native Hawaiian households

in Hawaii County was $320,300, nearly

The housing units occupied by Native

$200,000 less than the median value in

Hawaiian households tended to have lower

Honolulu County. Stakeholders in Hawaii

values and rents and exhibited a different

confirmed this affordability landscape for

pattern at the county level. During the

Native Hawaiians, though they spoke about

2006-to-2010 period, the median home

individual islands rather than counties. They

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

30

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Exhibit 4.5. Median Home Value for Native Hawaiians and Residents of Hawaii, by Owner-Occupied Units, 2006 to 2010

700,000

600,000

500,000

400,000

Native

Hawaiian

300,000

Resident

of Hawaii

Median home value ($)

200,000

100,000

0

State of Hawaii

Hawaii County

Honolulu County

Kauai County

Maui County

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates indicated that Native Hawaiians faced the

American Community Survey (ACS)

highest prices on Oahu, especially in the

estimates, the research team was unable to

Honolulu area. Housing was less expensive in

analyze change over time in home values

general on the neighbor islands, but limited

and rents for this report.2121  Other sources

existing housing stock and developable land

report overall increases in home values and

made finding housing on these islands more

rents over time. For example, data from

difficult. Among the neighbor islands, Maui

the Economic Research Organization at

was considered the most expensive. Hawaii

the University of Hawaii, or UHERO, show a

Island is split between the more affordable

steady increase in the median sales price for

eastern side of the island, which includes

a single-family home in Hawaii from 2000 to

Hilo and is considered more residential,

2013, with a dip between 2007 and 2011 as a

and the more expensive western side of

result of the Great Recession (UHERO, 2013).

the island, which includes Kona and is more

heavily influenced by tourism. Other lower-

Housing Problems and Needs:

cost properties tended to be in more remote

Framework

locations, such as on Molokai, that do not

This report uses the framework for assessing

have opportunities for employment or

inadequate housing as presented in the

services nearby.

Urban Institute’s 2014 report on American

Given differences in the published data

Indian and Alaska Native housing (Pettit et

between census 2000 and 2006–2010

al., 2014). Modified from the Urban Institute’s

21  Published tables from the 2000 census reported median home values and contract rents only for owner- and renter-occupied specified units, but the tables for 2006-2010 ACS estimates report these values for all owner- and renter-occupied units.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

31

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

previous reports on American Indian and

define inadequate housing: quantity, quality,

Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian housing

and price. These qualities are described in

(Kingsley et al., 1996; Mikelsons et al., 1995),

the following subsections and summarized

the framework outlines three qualities that

in exhibit 4.6.

Exhibit 4.6. Housing Problems and Needs Framework

Quantity

Market level: How well the number of housing units can accommodate the number of households that need housing, taking into account vacancies and projected growth.

Unit level: The number of people living in a given unit and the amount of space available–the size (in rooms) of the unit or the degree of overcrowding.

Overcrowded unit (HUD definition): More than one person per room.

Severely overcrowded (HUD definition): More than 1.5 persons per room.

Both measures of overcrowding are based on the total number of rooms in the unit considered suitable for living purposes (living rooms, dining rooms, kitchens, bedrooms, finished recreation rooms, enclosed porches suitable for year-round use, and lodgers’ rooms).

Quality

Facilities problems: Problems exist when (1) a unit lacks adequate plumbing, kitchen, electrical, and/or heating facilities; (2) such facilities do not function properly; or (3) the facilities constitute a safety hazard.

Condition problems: These problems occur when the unit was built inadequately (or has since deteriorated), so that it is structurally unsafe or offers inadequate protection from the elements.

Design problems: These problems relate to the physical arrangement and characteristics of external features and interior spaces and whether they are deemed to be attractive and functionally convenient.

Price

Definition: The dollar amount of housing expenses in relation to household income.

Cost burdened (HUD definition): A household that pays more than 30 percent of its total income on housing.

Severely cost burdened (HUD definition): A household that spends more than 50 percent of its income on housing.

HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

32

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Quantity

3. Design problems relate to the physical

arrangement and characteristics of

At the market level, quantity is a measure of

external features and interior spaces and

how well the number of housing units can

whether they are deemed to be attractive

accommodate the number of households

and functionally convenient. For several

that need housing, taking into account

reasons—including the fact that tastes

vacancies and projected growth. On the unit

vary—an objective rating scheme for this

level, the measure used is the number of

aspect has never been devised.

people living in a given unit compared with

the size (in rooms) of the unit or the degree

Census data are available for only part of

of overcrowding.

the facilities problems.The census and ACS

surveys ask whether a unit has adequate

HUD categorizes a housing unit as

kitchen and plumbing facilities.23 This

overcrowded if it has more than one person

section reports on how Native Hawaiian

per room and as severely overcrowded if it

households responded to these questions.

has more than 1.5 persons per room. These

Census data do not include information on

measures are included in the U.S. Census

condition or design problems. The survey

Bureau’s ACS and American Housing Survey.

of HHCA beneficiaries households on the

The calculation is based on the total number

State of Hawaii’s Department of Hawaiian

of rooms in the unit considered suitable for

Home Lands (DHHL) waiting list includes

living purposes. 22Overcrowding and severe

questions on these issues, which are

overcrowding were included in the analyses

covered in section 5.

for this report.

Price

Quality

This characteristic addresses the dollar

This characteristic encompasses three types

amount of housing expenses in relation to

of quality problems.

household income. Price becomes a problem

1.  Facilities problems are the easiest to

when the cost of housing is higher than a

measure. Problems exist when (1) a

household can reasonably afford, leaving

unit lacks adequate plumbing, kitchen,

households insufficient resources for food,

electrical, and/or heating facilities; (2)

clothing, and other necessities of life.

such facilities do not function properly; or

HUD determines that a “cost burdened”

(3) the facilities constitute a safety hazard.

household pays more than 30 percent of its

2. Condition problems occur when the

total income on housing. If a household spends

unit was built inadequately (or has since

more than 50 percent of its income on housing,

deteriorated) so that it is structurally

HUD designates it as “severely cost burdened.”

unsafe or offers inadequate protection

The U.S. Census Bureau collected data on the

from the elements. These problems have

proportion of households that fall into these

been hard to rate in an objective manner.

two categories in both the 2000 decennial

22  The Census Bureau considers the following rooms suitable for living purposes: living rooms, dining rooms, kitchens, bedrooms, finished recreation rooms, enclosed porches suitable for year-round use, and lodgers’ rooms. The Census Bureau excludes the following types of rooms: strip or Pullman kitchens, bathrooms, open porches, balconies, halls or foyers, half rooms, utility rooms, unfinished attics or base-ments, or other unfinished spaces used for storage (U.S. Census Bureau Glossary https://www.census.gov/glossary).

23  A unit has complete kitchen facilities when it has all of the following facilities: (1) cooking facilities, (2) a refrigerator, and (3) a sink with piped water (https://www.factfinder.census.gov/help/en/kitchen_facilities.htm). Complete plumbing facilities include (1) hot and cold piped water, (2) a flush toilet, and (3) a bathtub or shower. All three facilities must be located in the housing unit (https://www.factfinder.

census.gov/help/en/plumbing_facilities.htm).

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

33

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

census and the ACS. This section reports on

in the very low-income and low-income

these data for Native Hawai an households.24

groups. The rates of overcrowding for Native

Hawaiian households in Hawaii remained

Housing Problems and Needs:

similar in 2000. At 25 percent, they were only

Quantity

3 percentage points lower than in 1990 and

2 percentage points lower than in 1980; the

Overcrowding was more common among

residents of Hawaii household rate lingered at

households in Hawaii than in all U.S.

around 14 percent.25

households. During the 2006-to-2010 period,

households in Hawaii were three times more

Although Native Hawai an rates remained

likely to experience overcrowding and severe

higher, by the 2006-to-2010 period, the

overcrowding than were households in the

prevalence of overcrowding among both

United States: 3 percent of households in the

groups dropped substantial y. By the 2006-to-

United States were overcrowded (with more

2010 period, the overcrowding rate for Native

than one person per room), but 9 percent

Hawai ans dropped 10 percentage points to

of households in Hawaii faced the same

reach 15 percent. The rate for residents of

condition. Of all U.S. households, about 1

Hawaii households also dropped, but by a

percent were severely overcrowded (more

smaller margin (6 percentage points), to reach

than 1.5 persons per room), but, in Hawaii,

8 percent (exhibit 4.7). Not shown in the exhibit,

3 percent of households were severely

rates of severe overcrowding also decreased

overcrowded. Although overcrowding rates in

substantial y during the 2000-to-2010 decade.

Hawaii remained relatively high, they dropped

In 2000, 12 percent of Native Hawai an

by more percentage points than rates in the

households were severely overcrowded as were

United States overall. Between 2000 and

7 percent of residents of Hawaii households.

the 2006-to-2010 period, overcrowding in

By the 2006-to-2010 period, those shares had

Hawaii declined 6 percentage points, from 15

dropped to 5 and 3 percent, respectively.

to 9 percent of households, but, during the

same period, the U.S. rate dropped only 3

The highest incidence of overcrowding in

percentage points, from 6 to 3 percent.

Native Hawaiian households by county was

in Maui County (20 percent), followed by

Within Hawaii, overcrowding was consistently

Kauai (17 percent), Honolulu (15 percent),

more common among Native Hawaiian

and Hawaii (13 percent) Counties. Severe

households than residents of Hawaii

overcrowding was 6 percent in Kauai County

households. Mikelsons et al. (1995) found that

and 5 percent in the other counties. During

28 percent of Native Hawaiian households

the decade, overcrowding rates declined in all

experienced overcrowding in 1990, a slight

four counties. Of the counties, Native Hawaiian

increase from 27 percent in 1980. This rate

households in Honolulu County experienced

was more than twice the rate of overcrowding

the least severe disparities in overcrowding

for residents of Hawaii households, which was

and severe overcrowding, with rates 1.9 and 1.7

13 percent in 1990. Rates of overcrowding for

times, respectively, that of residents of Hawaii

Native Hawaiian households were consistently

households. Native Hawaiian households in

high across geographic settings and highest

24  Mikelsons et al. (1995) included breakdowns of these housing issues on several dimensions: urban versus rural; low-income (80 percent of the Area Median Income [AMI]), very low-income (30 percent of the AMI), and non-low-income households; and by the existence of multiple problems. Due to differing data sources, this study does not use these breakdowns but, instead, investigates the incidence of housing problems by racial category (Native Hawaiian and resident of Hawaii) and county.

25  Because the race question was asked differently on the 1980 and 1990 decennial censuses than it was in the 2000 census (in 2000 respondents could select multiple races), these differences should be interpreted with caution.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

34

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Exhibit 4.7. Percent of Households That Were Overcrowded, by Native Hawaiian Identification, 1980 to 2006 to 2010

30

28

28

25

25

20

15

15

14

13

10

Percent of households

8

5

Native Hawaiian

Resident of Hawaii

0

1980

1990

2000

2006–2010

Sources: Data for 1980 and 1990 come from Mikelsons et al. (1995); 2000 data come from the U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2000; 2006-2010 data come from the U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables

Kauai County had the most severe disparities,

facilities, the proportion of the population with

with overcrowding being 2.3 times the rate

inadequate facilities was higher than in the

of overcrowding for residents of Hawaii and

United States as a whole, and the proportion

severe overcrowding being 2.4 times the rate

of Native Hawaiian households with facilities

for residents of Hawaii.

deficiencies was higher than for residents of

Hawaii households.

According to stakeholders, overcrowding

has several negative consequences. First,

A larger share of housing units in Hawaii lacks

it contributes to housing unit deterioration,

complete kitchen and plumbing facilities than

because the larger number of occupants

in the United States overall. During the 2006-

leads to greater wear and tear on the

to-2010 period, 0.8 percent of households

unit. Second, it can create conflict among

in Hawaii lacked complete plumbing

neighbors over parking, noise, and other

facilities compared with 0.5 percent of units

issues. Stakeholders noted that homes were

nationwide. Further, 1.5 percent of households

not built with sufficient parking for all the cars

in Hawaii lacked complete kitchen facilities,

associated with an overcrowded unit, which

nearly twice the national rate (0.8 percent).

creates tension with neighbors regarding

available parking.

Within Hawaii, facilities problems were more

prevalent among Native Hawaiian households

Housing Problems and Needs:

than among residents of Hawaii households.

Quality

During the 2006-to-2010 period, 1.1 percent of

Native Hawaiians lacked complete plumbing

Although few households in Hawaii lack

facilities compared with 0.7 percent among

complete plumbing, kitchen, or telephone

residents of Hawaii households. This disparity

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

35

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

persisted in Hawaii County, where 3 percent

Housing Problems and Needs: Price

of Native Hawaiian households lacked

plumbing facilities, almost twice the rate

Housing affordability was a problem for

of residents of Hawaii households, and in

people across Hawaii. During the 2006-to-

Maui County, where the rate was 1.2 percent

2010 period, 42 percent of all households

for Native Hawaiian households and 0.8

in Hawaii were cost burdened, a rate 6

percent for residents of Hawaii households.

percentage points higher than the national

In Honolulu and Kauai Counties, the rates

rate of 36 percent. Within Hawaii, Native

for Native Hawaiians and residents of Hawaii

Hawaiian households had slightly lower rates

were equivalent.

of cost burden (40 percent) than did the

residents of Hawaii households (42 percent),

The rate for incomplete kitchen facilities was

but both were still more than the national

slightly higher for Native Hawaiian households

rate. Lower average home values and rents

(1.9 percent) than for residents of Hawaii

paid and larger household size for Native

households (1.5 percent). This trend held in

Hawaiians may partially explain this seemingly

Maui County, where the Native Hawaiian rate

counterintuitive rate. All the stakeholders

was 2.9 percent and the residents of Hawaii

interviewed for this study agreed that a lack

rate was 1.5 percent, and in Hawaii County,

of affordable housing is a major housing-

where the Native Hawaiian rate was 2.4

related challenge in Hawaii and that Native

percent and the residents of Hawaii rate was

Hawaiians experience disproportionate

1.7 percent. In Honolulu and Kauai Counties,

burden due to lower average incomes

the Native Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii

and limited access to capital. Stakeholder

rates were about equal, at about 1.4 and 2.5

respondents from DHHL, financial institutions,

percent, respectively.

and housing support organizations estimated

that Native Hawaiians typically spend 40 to

The stakeholder interviews also identified

60 percent of their income on housing and

physical problems of housing occupied by

housing-related costs and may require three

Native Hawaiians. Stakeholders reported

or more incomes to afford the cost of the

that the quality of homes varied both on and

median home purchase or rental.

off the Hawaiian home lands, depending on

age, quality of original construction, owner

Although a significant share of Native

maintenance, and the number of occupants.

Hawaiian households across Hawaii

Older homes across Hawaii, in many cases,

experienced a housing cost burden, the

have deteriorated due to poor construction or

proportion varied by county. Native Hawaiian

lack of maintenance. Older houses with wood

households in Honolulu and Maui Counties

and single-wall construction may have wood

had the highest rates of cost burden, each

rot or termite damage because the wood was

at approximately 41 percent; in addition, they

not regularly painted and termite treatments

experienced an approximately 34-percent

were not applied properly. Stakeholders

rate for severe cost burden. Native Hawaiian

also noted that foundations can crack due

households in Kauai County were the

to ground shifting and may not be repaired.

least likely to experience cost burden and

Further, the climate causes a significant need

severe cost burden, at 33 and 27 percent,

for weatherization. The area’s moisture, salt

respectively. This county variation is consistent

air, and wind can cause materials to wear, rot,

with the findings of Mikelsons et al. (1995),

or rust prematurely; support the growth of

which identified higher rates of affordability

mold and mildew; and cause other problems.

problems in urban areas than in rural areas.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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36

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Differences in cost burden for Native

expenses, (2) working multiple jobs, and (3)

Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii households

living far from their place of employment.

also varied by county. In Hawaii and Honolulu

Counties, the rates of cost burden and

Overcrowding or extended or multifamily

severe cost burden for Native Hawaiian and

living is one potential strategy Native

residents of Hawaii households hovered

Hawaiians used to cope with housing

within a percentage point of each other. In

affordability issues, especially in areas with

Maui and Kauai Counties, rates were higher

a shortage of affordable housing. Speaking

in residents of Hawaii households. In Maui,

specifically about Maui Island, one informant

the proportion of both cost-burdened and

estimated that it takes income from about

severely cost-burdened residents of Hawaii

three to four jobs to afford rent or a house

households was 4 percentage points higher

payment. This practice leads to as many as

than for Native Hawaiian households. Kauai

four or five families living within one unit.

County had the largest gap: the proportion of

Overcrowding declined notably during the

residents of Hawaii households with housing

2000-to-2010 decade, but cost burden

cost burden was 9 percentage points higher

among Native Hawaiian households remained

than for Native Hawaiian households, and

relatively prevalent, with two-fifths of

the proportion with severe cost burden was

households paying 30 percent or more of

7 percentage points higher than for Native

their income on housing and one-third of that

Hawaiian households.

group paying 50 percent or more.

Although differences in data reporting limit

Further, most stakeholders seemed conflicted

researchers’ ability to draw conclusions

about calling extended or multifamily living

about changes over time, the analysis for

“overcrowding” or a problem, because

this report and findings from Mikelsons et

these situations are considered normal and

al. (1995) suggest that cost burden among

culturally acceptable in addition to being

Native Hawaiian households in Hawaii has

economically practical. “Ohana living” is a

increased since the 1980s.26 Mikelsons et al.

local concept meaning living in the extended

(1995) found 25 percent of Native Hawaiian

family style. Ohana, or extended family, is a

households were cost burdened in 1980, and

core social unit in Hawaii. The ohana concept

28 percent were cost burdened in 1990. In

is shaped by ideas about cooperation,

2000, the rate of cost burden among Native

mutual support, and shared responsibility

Hawaiian households reached 36 percent

for the welfare of families and communities

and increased again to 40 percent during the

(Handy and Pukui, 1950; Kana’iaupuni, 2004;

2006-to-2010 period.

McGregor et al., 2003; Stern, Yuen, and

Hartsock, 2004). The cultural importance of

Strategies To Deal With

the ohana concept and the sense of family

Affordability Challenges

obligation attached to it encourage Native

Hawaiians to place a high value on taking

Stakeholders described three main ways

in relatives who are in need. One informant

that Native Hawaiians cope with housing

said, “Part of our culture is taking in family

affordability challenges: (1) overcrowding or

to avoid homelessness.” Overcrowding is a

extended or multifamily living to pool

phenomenon that continues over generations,

26  The ability to draw exact conclusions is limited by two factors. First, as mentioned previously, starting with the 2000 census, respondents could select more than one race. Because of this change, the race definitions between the 1980 and 1990 censuses differ from those in the 2000 and 2010 censuses and the ACS. Second, cost burden in 2000 was calculated only for specified units, but in the 2006–2010

ACS it was calculated for all units.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

37

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

so some people are used to it and do not

employment challenges in Hawaii. In general,

see it as a problem. A few informants,

stakeholders thought that this strategy

however, noted that multifamily or extended

was not widely used, especially after the

households are becoming less popular as

tourism industry rebounded from the Great

times are changing, and it might not be

Recession. A few people thought it was,

preferred if housing were more affordable.

however. One homesteader said, “We are

born and live here and expect to die here,

To afford housing, rather than bringing more

and yet our children are leaving because they

people into the household, adults in some

can’t afford to live here. That is sacrilegious

households may choose to work more jobs.

almost to us, driving out our culture. We have

One key informant said that it is impossible

lands that aren’t enough to house us.”

to afford housing unless a household is

willing to “team up with others or take on

Homelessness

additional jobs.” Stakeholders noted that

these households may be at particular risk

Because of their lower incomes, higher

of losing housing if they encounter a sudden

poverty rates, and challenges obtaining

loss of income because of job loss or other

and maintaining affordable housing, Native

unexpected financial burden.

Hawaiians may be at particular risk for

homelessness. Research shows that the

Another method of coping is to live in more

single biggest individual-level predictor of

affordable areas farther from employment.

homelessness is having an extremely low

This strategy came up often in conversations

income (Burt, 2001), and the key systemic

about Hawaii Island. Substantial numbers of

driver of homelessness is the availability

hospitality and tourism workers employed

or the lack of affordable housing

in and around Kona lived somewhere on

(Cunningham, 2009).

the eastern side of the island where housing

is more affordable. A typical commute

Both the stakeholder interviews and

for people in this situation could involve a

administrative data suggest that Native

30-minute or longer bus ride to Hilo, where

Hawaiians are overrepresented among the

they catch another bus to the hotels in

homeless population. All the stakeholders

Kona, with one-way commutes of more

with whom the research team discussed

than 2 hours. Before the recent rebuilding

homelessness agreed that homelessness

of the “saddle road” across the middle of

is a significant problem in Hawaii and

the island from Hilo to just north of Kona,

indicated that Native Hawaiians are

commutes were even longer and more

disproportionately represented in the state’s

dangerous because the old road had many

homeless population.

narrow stretches with sharp curves, blind

Administrative data substantiate this

hills, and a history of poor maintenance that

impression. Although data are not available for

led to deterioration. Employers in the Kona

only Native Hawaiians, HUD’s 2015 Homeless

region have begun to offer bus service for

Populations and Subpopulations reports

employees as a result of a large workforce

(HUD, 2015) show that 2,978, or 39 percent, of

residing in the Hilo area.

the state’s 7,620 homeless individuals identify

Beyond these three core coping strategies,

as Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

a few informants noted that some Native

compared with only about 10 percent in the

Hawaiians are migrating to the mainland

state as a whole, according to 2014 ACS 1-year

as a strategy for dealing with housing and

data (exhibit 4.8).

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

38

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Exhibit 4.8. Size of the Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Homeless Population, 2015

Households

Individuals

Total Number

Total Number

Number NH/OPI

Percent NH/OPI

Honolulu County

2,956

4,903

2,137

43.6

Rest of Hawai

1,897

2,717

841

31.0

State Total

4,853

7,620

2,978

39.1

COC = Continuum of Care. NH = Native Hawaiian. OPI = Other Pacific Islander.

Sources: Homelessness data are from CoC Homeless Populations and Subpopulations Reports for Honolulu City and County and Hawaii Balance of State CoCs; https://www.hudexchange.info/resource/reportmanagement/published/CoC_PopSub_State_HI_2015.pdf.

Stakeholders described the state’s homeless

and eastern sides of the island, where Native

population as divided into two groups. The

Hawaiians make up a larger share of the

first group is largely composed of chronically

population. On Hawaii Island, the chronically

homeless single adults.27 These individuals

homeless were concentrated around Kona,

tend to be older males (estimated average

and the economically disadvantaged Native

age of 62) with substance use or mental

Hawaiian homeless tended to live on the

health issues and are not typically Native

eastern side of the island.

Hawaiian. The second category includes

adults and families who are working but

Several stakeholders reported that people

are economically disadvantaged and

often do not want to go to shelters because

homeless; one informant from a stakeholder

of the rules governing them, such as rules

organization estimated that most of this

against pets or alcohol and drug-screening

group is Native Hawaiian. These homeless

protocols. Some shelters are also unappealing

families and individuals typically double

because they separate men and women

up with family, live in cars or garages, or

or offer limited privacy. One informant

live in tents or temporary shelters in rural

suggested these kinds of rules may be not

areas. A few informants also noted that

be acceptable to families, which might help

some homeless Native Hawaiians live in lava

explain why shelters on Oahu often are not

tubes—cave-like tunnels created by volcanic

full, except for the family shelter, which does

activity—around the island.

not have these restrictions. Families may

be opting to make other arrangements for

These two groups tended to live in different

shelter in order to stay together. Although

areas of the state. On the island of Oahu,

the state has a plan to end and prevent

the chronically homeless were more likely to

homelessness, Native Hawaiians may not be

live in the Honolulu and Waikiki areas. The

the immediate beneficiaries of investment

economically disadvantaged Native Hawaiian

due to their lower level of need relative to the

homeless were concentrated on the western

chronically homeless population.

27  HUD defines chronically homeless as “(1) A ‘homeless individual with a disability,’ as defined in the Act, who: • Lives in a place not meant for human habitation, a safe haven, or in an emergency shelter; and • Has been homeless (as described above) continuously for at least 12 months or on at least 4 separate occasions in the last 3 years where the combined occasions must total at least 12 months; (2) An individual who has been residing in an institutional care facility for fewer than 90 days and met all of the criteria in paragraph (1) of this definition, before entering that facility; or (3) A family with an adult head of household (or if there is no adult in the family, a minor head of household) who meets all of the criteria in paragraphs (1) or (2) of this definition, including a family whose composition has fluctuated while the head of household has been homeless,” (24 CFR Parts 91 and 578). Federal Register 80 [223]. https://www.hudexchange.info/

resources/documents/Defining-Chronically-Homeless-Final-Rule.pdf

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

39

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Section 5. Circumstances

° Beyond these characteristics, HHCA

beneficiary households on the waiting

of Native Hawaiians

list appeared to be much more

disadvantaged than households on

the sampled Hawaiian home lands and

Residing in Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian residents of Hawaii

households overall. HHCA beneficiary

Home Lands and on the

households on the waiting list had

the lowest median income of all four

Hawaiian Home Lands

groups by a substantial margin, and

they received public cash assistance

Waiting List

at more than twice the rate of the

other groups. By contrast, households

on the sampled Hawaiian home lands

reported a higher median income

Sections 2 through 4 of this report describe

than Native Hawaiian and residents of

population growth and distribution, social and

Hawaii households at the state level.

economic conditions and trends, and housing

conditions and needs for all of Hawaii, using

•  HHCA beneficiary households on the

census data to compare Native Hawaiians

waiting list also faced more significant

residing in the state with other residents of

housing challenges across all dimensions

Hawaii. This section addresses the same topics,

than did the other groups.

focusing on two groups of Native Hawaiian

households: those households residing on the

° Although overcrowding is a

bigger problem on the Hawaiian

Hawaiian home lands and those households on

home lands than in the state, in

the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act (HHCA)

general, overcrowding and severe

beneficiary waiting list who are waiting for a

overcrowding were even more

lot on the Hawaiian home lands.28

prevalent among households on the

Key Findings

waiting list. For example, nearly 40

percent of households on the waiting

Key findings from this section include—

list were overcrowded compared with

only 19 percent of households on

•  Households on the 20 sampled Hawaiian

sampled Hawaiian home lands.

home lands were more similar to HHCA

beneficiary households on the waiting

° Facilities problems, which are about

list in terms of mobility, household size,

equal y uncommon on the Hawai an

and household composition than to

home lands as in the state overal ,

Native Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii

affected HHCA beneficiary households

households at the state level. HHCA

on the waiting list at high rates. For

beneficiary households on the waiting list

example, 10 percent of HHCA beneficiary

and households on the sampled Hawaiian

households on the waiting list lacked

home lands were less mobile, had larger

complete plumbing compared with 1

household sizes, and had lower rates of

percent for all other groups.

single parent-headed households.

28  Note that these two groups are not mutually exclusive, because some individuals who reside on the Hawaiian home lands are also applicants on the waiting list.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

40

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

° HHCA beneficiary households on the

Framing and Sources of Information

waiting list experienced cost burden

at higher rates than Native Hawaiian

This report relies on three sources of data

and residents of Hawaii households

to describe the population and housing

in the state, but households living on

conditions of the people living on the

the Hawaiian home lands experienced

Hawaiian home lands: (1) the U.S. decennial

lower rates of cost burden than

census for 2000 and the 2006–2010

HHCA beneficiary households on the

American Community Survey (ACS) data

waiting list.

for the 20 most populous residential

homesteads;29 (2) DHHL surveys of its

° Based on the household survey, few

lessees, the most recent of which were

HHCA beneficiary households on the

completed in 2008 and 2014; and (3)

waiting list were currently receiving

semistructured discussions conducted in

a housing subsidy, and only a small

July 2014 with a range of stakeholders,

share had ever received one.

including leadership and members of

homestead associations, officials and staff

The Hawaiian Home Lands

of DHHL, and stakeholders at organizations

Population

that have direct experience working with the

The existence of the Hawaiian home lands

state’s Native Hawaiian population.30 This last

is a distinctive feature of the housing

group included the State of Hawaii Office

situation for members of the Native

of Hawaiian Affairs, housing assistance

Hawaiian community. The Hawaiian Home

providers, financial institutions, advocacy

Lands program is managed by the State

groups, and faith-based and other social

of Hawaii’s Department of Hawaiian

service organizations.

Home Lands (DHHL) with oversight of the

Each of the three data sources has its

state’s management provided by the U.S.

limitations, and no single source provides

Department of the Interior. The program,

the complete picture of Native Hawaiians

established in 1921 for homesteading by

residing on the Hawaiian home lands.

Native Hawaiians, is in place to support

Census data report on all residents of the

the self-sufficiency and well-being of the

Hawaiian home lands, including those who

Native Hawaiian people. These public trust

are not Native Hawaiian (about 13 percent

lands are leased to eligible Native Hawaiian

of the Hawaiian home lands population).

community members for residential,

The lessee survey is a self-administered

agricultural, and pastoral purposes in

mail survey that DHHL sends to all lessees;

homestead communities. In 2014, Hawaii had

the 2014 survey obtained a 22-percent

56 occupied homestead communities with

response rate from those currently

9,838 leases (DHHL, 2014b) and, in 2010,

residing on the Hawaiian home lands.31 The

according to the 2010 census, there were

stakeholder interviews provided qualitative

30,858 residents on the home lands.

information from individuals

29  These 20 home lands were the largest sample of homestead communities with complete data on the variables of interest for this report. A list of these Hawaiian home lands communities with their populations is provided in appendix A.

30  Homestead associations are beneficiary-controlled organizations that represent and serve the interests of their respective homestead community and have as a stated purpose the representation of and provision of services to their homestead community.

31  These respondents were traditional lessees (that is, those who have a lease on the Hawaiian home lands and reside on the home lands).

Undivided interest lessees were surveyed separately (19-percent response rate) because they had received leases but had not yet moved into a Hawaiian home lands community.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

41

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List familiar with housing issues in Hawaii and,

number of older homestead communities

in particular, Native Hawaiians and housing

or an older age at lease inception.

options available on the Hawaiian home

lands. Stakeholders varied in their areas

Household Sizes and Types

of expertise, and interviews were tailored

Households on the Hawaiian home lands

accordingly. Further details about the data

tend to be larger than both Native Hawaiian

sources and limitations are provided in

and other households at the state level. The

appendix C.

average household size in the Hawaiian home

Social and Economic Conditions

lands sample was 4.3 compared with 4.1 in

the Native Hawaiian population and 2.7 for

Population

residents of Hawaii households. Households

in the sampled Hawaiian home lands were

The sample of the 20 most populous

also more likely than Native Hawaiians

residential Hawaiian homestead

to have large families with five or more

communities used in the analysis, which had

people. In 2010, 40 percent of households

a total population of 27,596, made up 89

in the sampled Hawaiian home lands were

percent of the total Hawaiian home lands

categorized as large compared with 26

population in 2010. Of this population, 87

percent of Native Hawaiian households

percent were Native Hawaiian alone or

statewide and 16 percent of all households

multiracial. The remaining residents were

in Hawaii. These findings are similar to those

largely White alone (4 percent) or Asian

reported by Mikelsons et al. (1995).

alone (4 percent). The proportions of Blacks,

American Indians and Alaska Natives, Other

On the Hawaiian home lands, married

Pacific Islanders, and people of multiple

couples without children households and

races (not including Native Hawaiian) ranged

other family households (defined by the U.S.

from 0.1 to 1 percent.

Census Bureau as male- or female-headed

family households without children under

Age

age 18) are more common, and nonfamily

households (those that do not include one

As noted in section 3, the Native Hawaiian

or more persons related by birth, marriage,

population tended to be younger than

or adoption) and single parent-headed

the residents of Hawaii population, with

households are less common compared

a smaller proportion of the population

with the Native Hawaiian population in the

being age 65 and older and a larger share

state. In 2010, 32 percent of households

being under age 20. The residents of the

in the sampled Hawaiian home lands were

sampled Hawaiian home lands skewed

married couples without children and 22

older. Only 7 percent of Hawaii’s Native

percent were other family households. By

Hawaiian population was age 65 and older

contrast, only 25 percent of Native Hawaiian

in 2010, but the share for the Hawaiian

households were married couples without

home lands residents sample was 10

children and only 15 percent were other

percent. Further, although 39 percent of

family types (exhibit 5.1). The share of single-

the state’s Native Hawaiian population

parent households on the Hawaiian home

overall was under age 20, only 33 percent

lands (9 percent) was much lower than the

of the total population on the Hawaiian

overall Native Hawaiian share in the state

home lands was in that age group. These

(16 percent). Nonfamily households are also

differences could be due in part to the

less common on the Hawaiian home lands.

aging of the lessees in a substantial

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

42

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Exhibit 5.1. Household Composition in Hawaiian Home Lands Compared With All Native Hawaiian Households in the State of Hawaii, 2010

35

All households in sampled home lands

30

All Native Hawaiian households in Hawaii

25

20

15

Percent of households

10

5

0

Married with children under 18

Single parent with children under 18

Married without children

Other

Nonfamily households

Note: Of home lands residents, 87 percent are Native Hawaiian.

Household category

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2010.

In 2010, only 13 percent of households in

than did the Native Hawaiian and

the sampled Hawaiian home lands were

residents of Hawaii populations at the

nonfamily compared with 23 percent among

state level. In the sampled Hawaiian

the state’s Native Hawaiian households.

home lands, 8 percent of the population

had at least a bachelor’s degree

Mikelsons et al. (1995) found that Native

compared with 15 percent for Native

Hawaiian households on the sampled

Hawaiians and 32 percent of residents

Hawaiian home lands were much more likely

of Hawaii during the 2006-to-2010

than Native Hawaiian households in the

period. Further, Hawaiian home lands

state to include subfamilies (28 compared

residents were slightly less likely to have

with 17 percent), and this pattern continues

completed high school. During the 2006-

today. In 2010, 27 percent of households

to-2010 period, 12 percent of Hawaiian

on the homelands included relatives

home lands residents did not have a high

beyond immediate family compared with 18

school diploma or general educational

percent among the state’s Native Hawaiian

development, or GED, compared

households and 11 percent among residents

with 10 percent of Native Hawaiians

of Hawaii households.

and residents of Hawaii. Mikelsons et

Educational Attainment

al. (1995) also found lower levels of

educational attainment on the Hawaiian

The Hawaiian home lands population had

home lands, suggesting that this trend

lower levels of educational attainment

has persisted throughout the decades.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

43

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Employment

Income and Poverty

Hawaiian home lands residents tended to

During the 2006-to-2010 period, the median

have lower labor force participation and

incomes for the 20 Hawaiian home lands

employment and higher unemployment

in the sample ranged widely, from $24,583

rates compared with statewide averages

to $103,571. Among residents of the 20

for Native Hawaiians and residents of

sampled home lands, the median income

Hawaii. During the 2006-to-2010 period,

was $66,901 and the average income was

65 percent of Hawaiian residents age 16

$76,387. By comparison, the median income

and older on the sampled home lands were

was $62,852 for Native Hawaiian households

in the labor force, 4 percentage points

in Hawaii and $66,420 for all of Hawaii.

lower than the rate for the state’s Native

Hawaiian population (69 percent) and 2

Hawaiian home lands residents had much

percentage points lower than residents of

lower poverty rates than did Native Hawaiian

Hawaii (67 percent) (exhibit 5.2). Hawaiian

and residents of Hawaii households in

home lands residents were also less likely

the state (exhibit 5.3). About 6 percent of

to be employed: 58 percent of those living

residents in the sampled Hawaiian home

on the sampled Hawaiian home lands were

lands were in poverty during the 2006-to-

employed compared with 62 percent of

2010 period compared with 12 percent of

all Native Hawaiians and 59 percent of

Native Hawaiians and 9 percent of residents

residents of Hawaii. These lower levels of

of Hawaii. In the sampled Hawaiian home

labor force participation and employment

lands, the poverty rate was highest (7

may reflect the fact that the home lands

percent) among adults ages 18 to 64, and

residents of the sampled Hawaiian home

the rates for children (under age 18) and

lands were older than Hawaii’s Native

seniors (age 65 and older) were lower, at

Hawaiian population overall. Further,

about 5 percent. The Hawaiian home lands

residents of the sampled Hawaiian home

child poverty rate stands in stark contrast

lands had a slightly higher unemployment

to the 15 percent child poverty rate in the

rate (10 percent) than did Native Hawaiians

statewide Native Hawaiian population. It is

statewide (9 percent) and residents of

possible that the analysis presented here

Hawaii (5 percent). This finding is consistent

overestimated incomes and underestimated

with findings from Mikelsons et al. (1995).

poverty. It excluded 1,694 residents in

smaller and agricultural homesteads. These

Exhibit 5.2. Labor Force Characteristics for the State of Hawaii by Native Hawaiian Identification and for the Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands, 2006 to 2010

Residents of Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands

Native Hawaiians

Residents of Hawai

Percent of population age 16 and older

In labor force

64.8

68.7

66.5

In civilian labor force

64.5

68.1

62.1

Unemployed

10.4

9.1

4.8

Employed

57.7

57.7

59.1

In military

0.3

0.3

4.4

Note: Hawaiian home lands include only the 20 largest residential Hawaiian home lands communities.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population table HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

HAWAIIAN HOUSING NEEDS

44

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Exhibit 5.3. Poverty Rates by Age Group for the Total Population in Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands and the Native Hawaiian Population in the State of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010

16

14

Total population in sampled home lands

12

All Native Hawaiians in Hawaii

10

8

6

4

2

Percent of the population for whom poverty status is determined

0

Total

Less than 18

18 to 64

65 and Older

Age group

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates homesteads may be in poorer, more rural

assistance. Both of these rates were lower

areas than the homesteads in the sample.

among residents of Hawaii households: only

In addition, it may be that the excluded

6 percent of residents of Hawaii households

homesteads have a higher proportion of

received SNAP, and 3 percent received

longer-term lessees, who tend to be more

public cash assistance.

financially disadvantaged (DHHL, 2008).

Housing Conditions: Problems and

Rates of receipt for means-tested assistance

Needs

programs for Hawaiian home lands residents

were about the same as those for Native

This subsection describes housing stock on

Hawaiians. During the 2006-to-2010 period,

the Hawaiian home lands, housing tenure,

for example, 16 percent of sampled Hawaiian

housing structure and type, and home

home lands residents and 15 percent of

values and includes findings on housing

Native Hawaiians received benefits from the

problems and needs specific to the Hawaiian

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

home lands. In assessing housing on the

(SNAP). Further, about 7 percent of both

Hawaiian home lands, this subsection uses

sampled Hawaiian home lands and Native

the same framework presented in section

Hawaiian households received public cash

4 to assess housing: quantity, quality, and

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List price. Census data for the sample of 20

3. Vacant lot awards are for lots without

Hawaiian home lands are supplemented with

homes. Lessees can select their own

descriptions and insights gleaned from the

home design to be built by a contractor or

stakeholder interviews and existing literature

as an owner-builder. DHHL also provides

on the Hawaiian home lands.

infrastructure development for these

awards, so vacant lots are generally

Housing Characteristics and Housing

awarded in a ready-to-build state.

Stock

4. Self-help/sweat equity awards depend

In 2013, Hawaii had 54 occupied homestead

on volunteer labor provided by the

communities with 9,850 leases established

lessees, friends, and family members or

on the trust lands. About 85 percent of

other skilled and unskilled volunteers.

leases provided to date are for residential

DHHL has cooperative partnerships with

purposes (DHHL, 2014b). According to the

several nonprofit and governmental

ACS, during the 2006-to-2010 period, the

organizations, such as Habitat for

20 sampled Hawaiian home lands had 6,068

Humanity, to facilitate these awards.

housing units.3232

Tenure

DHHL offers four basic types of residential

lease awards: (1) turnkey awards, (2)

Most DHHL homes on the Hawaiian home

undivided interest awards, (3) vacant lot

lands are intended for ownership. DHHL

awards, and (4) self-help/sweat equity awards.

traditionally has not offered rental properties

because rentals do not take people off the

1.  Turnkey awards are lots with prebuilt

waiting list for a lease, and DHHL’s mission

single-family homes. Lessees are able to

is focused on the delivery of land leases to

choose the model of the home to be built.

HHCA beneficiaries. This policy is reflected

Upon approval for a loan, construction

in the homeownership rate. During the

begins. A homebuilder/developer

2006-to-2010 period, the homeownership

competitively selected by DHHL manages

rate among households in the sampled

the construction of the home from start

Hawaiian home lands was 90 percent

to finish. DHHL provides offsite and onsite

compared with 55 percent among the state’s

infrastructure development to get the lots

Native Hawaiian households and 58 percent

to a ready-to-build state.

among residents of Hawaii households.

2. Undivided interest awards are for

Vacancy

unspecified lots in development projects

or subdivisions that are still in the

The Hawaiian home lands had a much lower

planning phases. This program provides

vacancy rate than did the state. Only 3

lessees time to get their finances in order

percent of the units on the Hawaiian home

and qualify for a mortgage while DHHL

lands were vacant compared with the state’s

develops the project. DHHL provides

overall vacancy rate of 12 percent. The low

assistance to lessees with financial literacy

vacancy rate was consistent with the high

training, counseling, and referrals to debt

demand for Hawaiian home lands leases

reduction and consolidation and credit

(as evidenced by the waiting list) and the

repair services.

control of development by DHHL.

32  Information on the number of units may not match DHHL’s statistics. For consistency throughout this subsection, 2006–2010 ACS estimates of the number of units are used.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Development on the Hawaiian home lands is

or materials.  One stakeholder noted that,

not speculative but, instead, is planned with

until about 20 years ago, a permit was

Hawaiian home lands applicants in mind.

not required for construction on Hawaiian

home lands. DHHL now requires licensed

Housing Type, Age, and Size

contractors and building to standard local

According to the ACS, during the 2006-to-

codes in construction projects.

2010 period, 96 percent of occupied housing

Turnkey homes on the Hawaiian home lands

units on the Hawaiian home lands were

generally have been built as part of planned

single-family detached homes compared

developments by home builders, and, as in

with 71 percent of homes occupied by Native

most planned communities, home choice

Hawaiians and 63 percent of homes occupied

was commonly limited to a few models

by residents of Hawaii. The remaining homes

with few options for customization. Turnkey

on the Hawaiian home lands were mostly in

homes generally are considered ready for

the townhouse or other multifamily category

occupancy immediately after completion.

(4 percent), and a very small share (0.1

Much of DHHL’s recent development activity

percent) fell into the other housing type

has been building turnkey housing in larger

category, which includes mobile homes,

homestead communities. These houses

recreational vehicles, boats, and so on.

are commonly three- to five-bedroom

Single-family homes on the Hawaiian home

homes. DHHL indicated that its older

lands generally fall into two categories: (1)

turnkey stock is of similar size but is lacking

owner-build and (2) turnkey. For owner-

some of the more modern conveniences

build homes, the lessees hire or contract a

like air conditioning. Many newer planned

professional to build the home, or they build

communities with turnkey homes also

it themselves after assuming the lease. These

include a homeowners association, which

units may be built all at once or in stages,

includes declarations, covenants, conditions,

and they are built to owner specifications

and restrictions imposed on residents.

within local codes, zoning, and community

Housing units on the Hawaiian home lands

requirements (if any). Thus, the structure of

tended to be newer. During the 2006-to-

owner-build homes varies widely and may

2010 period, 91 percent of homes in the

include single-family homes, prefabricated

sampled Hawaiian home lands were built

homes, shacks, Quonset huts, trailers,

after 1960 compared with 79 percent of

and nondwelling structures (for example,

Native Hawaiian homes and 81 percent of

shipping containers) converted to homes.

residents of Hawaii homes statewide.

In discussions about the quality of housing

Homes on the Hawaiian home lands were also

on the Hawaiian home lands, the interviewed

larger on average than Native Hawaiian homes

stakeholders focused on the quality of

in Hawaii overall. During the 2006-to-2010

construction and materials.33 Some of

period, 76 percent of homes on the Hawaiian

the older homes on the Hawaiian home

home lands had six or more rooms, more

lands were built by the owners to varying

than twice the shares of Native Hawaiian and

standards or by developers with little quality

residents of Hawaii homes (33 and 36 percent,

control or oversight in construction

respectively). Again, the unique

33  Some interviewed stakeholders indicated that the quality of materials and construction varied widely for owner-build homes, because they historically have not been subject to building standards or permitting processes. Reviewers of this report indicated, however, that building permits are required of lessees when building on DHHL lands.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List context of the Hawaiian home lands played a

$200,000 to $299,999 range (26 percent),

role in this trend. DHHL takes an active role in

the $300,000 to $499,999 range (24

planning development on the Hawaiian home

percent), and more than $500,000 (15

lands with applicants in mind, and lessees

percent). The median home values ranged

are able to exercise some amount of choice

widely across the homesteads, from

in the type and size of house that gets built,

$167,000 to $512,100. Although these home

especially for owner-build leases. Although

land values are not directly comparable to

these homes in general were larger, DHHL’s

private market values, for context, note that

lessee surveys provided some evidence

the median home value for Native Hawaiian

that lessees would prefer to have still larger

homes in the state was $463,800, and the

units. According to the 2008 lessee survey,

median value for all homes was $537,400.35

68 percent of Hawaiian home lands lessees

were considering adding an average of 2.4

Housing Problems and Needs:

bedrooms to their homes (DHHL, 2008). The

Quantity

2014 lessee survey presents contradictory

Although overcrowding has become less

findings on the need for additional rooms. The

prevalent in the state over time, rates of

majority of respondents to the 2014 survey

overcrowding on the Hawaiian home lands

(73 percent) said they were satisfied with the

remained higher than the rates for the state’s

size of their home, and only 26 percent said

Native Hawaiian households. Mikelsons et al.

they needed additional square footage to

(1995) found that, in 1990, Native Hawaiian

house their families adequately.34When they

households on the Hawaiian home lands

were asked how many rooms they would like

had a much higher rate of overcrowding (36

to add to their existing home, only 33 percent

percent) than those statewide (27 percent).

of respondents said they would not add any

By the 2006-to-2010 period, about 19

rooms, and 67 percent said they would add

percent of all households in the sampled

rooms. Among those lessees who would like

Hawaiian home lands were overcrowded

to add rooms to their home, slightly more

compared with 15 percent of Native

than one-half would choose to add one or

Hawaiian households statewide. In addition,

two extra bedrooms (DHHL, 2014c). These

6 percent of homes on the Hawaiian

contradictory findings could be due to

home lands were severely overcrowded in

differences in the framing of the two survey

contrast with 5 percent of Native Hawaiian

questions. The first question asked about

households in the state. As noted in section

need, but the second question brought into

4, stakeholders indicated that multifamily

consideration the desire to add rooms.

living or overcrowding is not only considered

Home Values

culturally acceptable but also is economically

practical, because pooling incomes across a

Home values on the Hawaiian home lands

larger number of adults may be necessary

tended to be lower than home values in

to afford housing and other expenses. This

the state overall. Most home values in

higher rate of overcrowding and larger

the sampled Hawaiian home lands in the

household size may be driving the higher

ACS 2006-to-2010 sample were less than

household incomes observed on the

$200,000 (35 percent), followed by the

sampled Hawaiian home lands.

34  Slightly less than 2 percent of households thought their home was too large.

35  Homes on the home lands can be sold only to HHCA beneficiaries, and, although some market-based appraisals occur, most home appraisals do not include the land value. The limited market and the absence of land value in the appraisal decreases the reported values.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Interviewed stakeholders in Hawaii

Native Hawaiian households in the state during

described a common practice of current

the 2006-to-2010 period. Rates of plumbing

home land lessees modifying structures to

(0.8 percent) and kitchen (1 percent) problems

accommodate multiple families. Common

in the Hawaiian home lands were one-half

areas are used as bedrooms, multiple

to one-third lower than the rates for Native

persons share bedrooms, and garages or

Hawaiian households in Hawaii overall. In

carports often are converted into bedrooms

1990, Hawaiian home lands households had a

or other living space. Another practice is

slightly higher proportion of facilities problems

building additions to house family members;

than did Native Hawaiian households in Hawaii

however, this option is often difficult to fund.

overall (Mikelsons et al., 1995).

Some stakeholders also pointed out that

zoning issues—locally called “ohana zoning”—

Conditions

may be associated with construction of

In the 2014 DHHL lessee survey, 30 percent

additional housing structures on a lot, noting

of lessees reported the need for some type of

that local zoning codes and enforcement

repairs to their current units (DHHL, 2014c).

vary.36 DHHL residential leases currently

This percentage is an increase from the

allow for only one dwelling, although

27 percent who reported a need for home

DHHL reported that it is reviewing the

repairs in the 2008 lessee survey (DHHL,

issues associated with allowing more than

2008). The need for repairs and the extent

one dwelling on a residential lot to see if a

of the repairs required were about the same

change should be made in its administrative

across all islands. As found in the 2008 survey

rules and/or its lease conditions.

and in earlier lessee surveys, the number and

Housing Problems and Needs: Quality

severity of needed repairs tended to increase

with the age of the housing unit. Among

Facilities

lessee homeowners who reported the need

for at least one type of repair, the work most

Facilities problems exist when (1) a

frequently required was exterior work, such

unit lacks adequate plumbing, kitchen,

as painting, siding, and gutters (62 percent).

electrical, and/or heating facilities; (2) such

More than one-half (54 percent) of lessee

facilities do not function properly; or (3)

homeowners reported the need for minimal

the facilities constitute a safety hazard.

repairs throughout the home (DHHL, 2014c).

Housing quality information in the census

and ACS is limited to adequacy of kitchen

DHHL estimated that, on the older

and plumbing facilities.37

homesteads, about 60 percent of homes

need some form of rehabilitation to address

Households on the Hawaiian home lands

major structural deficiencies, accessibility for

reported fewer facilities problems than did

people with disabilities, or retrofits to

36  In 1981, the state legislature passed a bill that required counties to allow a second dwelling unit, or ohana (extended family) unit, on single-family residential lots that had adequate public facilities. This law was popularly called the “ohana zoning” law, and its stated purpose was to “assist families to purchase affordable individual living quarters and, at the same time, to encourage the preservation of the extended family” (Jaworowski, 1998: 1). The counties created their own policies to implement the new law. The law was amended in 1989 to allow the individual counties to regulate ohana zoning in their own jurisdictions. Although the counties did not repeal their ordinances at that time, they have modified them over time, and now all the counties have different requirements for ohana units (Hawaii Appleseed Center for Law and Economic Justice, n.d.). The Honolulu City Council is currently considering a bill that would make ohana housing more accessible as a means of addressing the affordable-housing issue (Cruz, 2014).

37  A unit has complete kitchen facilities when it has all of the following: (1) cooking appliances, (2) a refrigerator, and (3) a sink with piped water (https://www.factfinder.census.gov/help/en/kitchen_facilities.htm). Complete plumbing facilities include (1) hot and cold piped water, (2) a flush toilet, and (3) a bathtub or shower. All three plumbing facilities must be located in the housing unit

https://www.factfinder.census.gov/help/en/plumbing_facilities.htm).

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List put in solar energy and reduce electricity

in the United States as a whole, residents

bills. Aging sewer systems and maintenance

of the Hawaiian home lands experienced

issues accelerate deterioration. Some of the

affordability problems at rates not only lower

older homes will need to be demolished

than state averages for Native Hawaiians

and rebuilt, although an estimate was not

and residents of Hawaii households but

obtained from DHHL. Stakeholders from

also lower than the national average. As

organizations serving Native Hawaiians in

noted in section 4, during the 2006-to-2010

general reported similar issues with housing

period, about 40 percent of Native Hawaiian

quality off the Hawaiian home lands.

households in the state and 42 percent of

residents of Hawaii households were cost

Design Problems

burdened. Only 21 percent of households in

Some major issues were also related to

the sampled Hawaiian home lands, about

inappropriate or inadequate construction

one-half of the statewide rates, were cost

for the environment or geography.

burdened during the same period. Mikelsons

Shortcomings in design or construction

et al. (1995) also found that affordability

result in increased maintenance and

problems were less common on the Hawaiian

repair costs and in safety concerns. For

home lands: 11 percent of Native Hawaiian

example, homestead residents on Hawaii

home lands households were cost burdened

Island described a development in which

compared with 28 percent of Native

most homes were built without eaves. This

Hawaiian households in the state in 1990.

omission led to problems of rotting on the

Home lands leases confer several benefits

exterior of homes by rain running down and

that may explain the lower cost burdens.

infiltrating the wood siding.

These benefits include an annual lease rent

Another example referred to homestead

of $1.00 per year, a 7-year exemption from

communities on Oahu Island that were

real property tax, a complete exemption

built on a mountainside. Because the land

of tax on land, a minimal real property tax

has shifted and several of the homes face

after the first 7 years (applies only to the

the ocean unprotected, walls have split

county of Kauai and the city and county

or rotted from exposure, foundations

of Honolulu), and low-interest government

are deteriorating, and floors are weak

loans. Nevertheless, stakeholders were

or rotting. Because the homes are on a

clear that it was still difficult for low- and

mountain, they generally have many steps

moderate-income groups to afford to

for access. These steps are deteriorating,

purchase or build a home on the Hawaiian

and they are especially unsafe for an

home lands.

aging population. These communities

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian

also have dealt with a multitude of issues

Home Lands Waiting List

associated with an aging sewer system

that is no longer maintained by the county

This subsection presents the results of a

because of its location on Hawaiian home

household survey administered in person

lands, although the system also serves a

to a sample of 516 HHCA beneficiaries on

neighboring wealthy fee-simple community.

the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian

Housing Problems and Needs: Price

home lands. The purpose of the household

survey was to better understand the housing

Although housing affordability problems

needs and conditions, income, education,

were much more prevalent in Hawaii than

age, and household composition of the one

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List group that is potentially eligible (depending

the respondents. The overall unweighted

on income) but not currently served under

response rate (that is, the percentage of

the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant.

households that opted in who completed

the survey) was 82.2 percent.39 The survey

Framing and Sources of Information

instrument and tables reporting detailed

For purposes of eligibility for homestead

survey results are included in appendix B.

leases, an HHCA beneficiary is defined as

The presentation of survey findings

“any descendant of not less than one-half

first describes demographic, social,

part of the blood of the races inhabiting

and economic conditions, followed by a

the Hawaiian Islands previous to 1778.” In

discussion of housing conditions and needs.

the case of those relatives who receive

This subsection includes comparisons of

a lease through transfer or succession

households on the Hawaiian home lands

under sections 207, 208, or 209 of HHCA,

and among Native Hawaiians and residents

a blood quantum of at least 25 percent

of Hawaii based on an analysis of ACS

Hawaiian blood is required.38 The blood

data. Because the survey data collection

quantum measure relies on proof of

occurred in 2014 and 2015 and the ACS

ancestry by individual applicants, so no

data collection occurred between 2006

survey counts exist for the number of

and 2010, the differences presented in this

people who meet this criterion statewide

subsection could be partially accounted for

or in any county as a whole.

by changes that occurred overall, so these

For the household survey, a representative

results should be interpreted with caution.

sample was drawn from a list of applicants

The differences in all cases are stark enough

on the waiting list for a lease on the

that the general trends hold.

Hawaiian home lands and who opted in,

Demographic, Social, and Economic

via postcard, to participate in the survey.

Conditions

Obtaining a random sample of HHCA

beneficiaries from the general population

Population Mobility

of the state would have been beyond the

funding limits of the study. After reviewing

Households on the waiting list tended

several administrative databases, the study

to move less often than the population

team determined that the waiting list

in Hawaii overall. About 95 percent of

database provided the best pool from which

households on the waiting list had lived in

to draw a random sample of individuals of

the same place for at least 1 year at the time

Native Hawaiian heritage.

of the survey compared with 86 percent

of Native Hawaiian households statewide

Data collection took place from August

and 84 percent of residents of Hawaii

2014 through April 2015. Trained Native

households. The percentage for households

Hawaiian interviewers conducted the

on sampled Hawaiian home lands was about

interviews at the residences of the

the same as the share for households on the

respondents to enable the interviewers

waiting list (95 percent). These households

to document indicators of quality and

would be expected to move less often

adequacy of the housing occupied by

38  The Hawaiian Homes Commission Act, 1920, as amended, includes provisions for leases to Hawaiians (section 207); conditions of leases, including transfers (section 208); and successors to lessees (section 209).

39  Some postcard opt-ins to the survey that were received late in the field period were sampled out because the research team did not need to include them to reach the sample targets. The unweighted response rate excludes those cases.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List because they have long-term Hawaiian

(25 percent) on sampled Hawaiian home

home lands leases. The reason for the

lands. By contrast, only about 9 percent of

relatively low incidence of moving among

households on the waiting list were headed

households on the waiting list lacks a clear

by a single parent with children compared

explanation.40

with 15 percent for Native Hawaiian

households. The waiting list rate was more

Household Composition and

similar to the rate observed on sampled

Structure

Hawaiian home lands (9 percent).

Age of household head. The largest share of

Extended family household arrangements.

households on the waiting list were headed

Although the most common family members

by an individual who was between the ages

living in households on the waiting list were

of 45 and 59 (39 percent). About 40 percent

spouses and children, many households

were older (30 percent were between the

also included other family members (exhibit

ages of 60 and 74, and 10 percent were age

5.4). About 19 percent of households

75 or older), and 21 percent were younger

included the householder’s grandchildren.

(13 percent were between the ages of 35

Most of these households (15 percent of all

and 44, 8 percent were between the ages

households, or 82 percent of households

of 25 and 34, and about 1 percent were

that included grandchildren) also included

between the ages of 18 and 24).

the householder’s children. Further, about 10

Household size. Like households on the

percent included the householder’s parents,

sampled Hawaiian home lands, households

and 2 percent included the householder’s

on the waiting list were larger than

grandparents. This finding suggests that

Native Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii

multigenerational living arrangements occur

households in the state overall. About 39

with some frequency. Further, about 10

percent of households on the waiting list

percent of households on the waiting list

included five or more members, about

included the householder’s sibling, 1 percent

equal to the share on the sampled Hawaiian

included an aunt or uncle, and 8 percent

home lands (40 percent). By contrast, only

included other family members.

27 percent of Native Hawaiian households

Employment

and 14 percent of residents of Hawaii

households were that large.

Heads of households on the waiting list were

less likely to be employed than heads of

Household type. Households on the

households among Native Hawaiians overall,

waiting list and Native Hawaiian households

but they were more likely to be employed

were about equally likely to be married

than were heads of households among

couples with children, but households

residents of the Hawaiian home lands. About

on the waiting list had a smaller share of

60 percent of heads of households on

single-parent households than did Native

the waiting list were employed compared

Hawaiian households. About 25 percent of

with heads of households among Native

households on the waiting list included a

Hawaiians (62 percent), residents of Hawaii

married couple with children compared with

(59 percent), and sampled Hawaiian home

23 percent of Native Hawaiian households

lands residents (58 percent).

overall. This rate was also similar to the rate

40  Survey numbers are estimates weighted to be representative of HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt in to the survey via postcard.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Exhibit 5.4. Extended Family Arrangements Among Waiting List Households

Point Estimate

Margin of Error for 95% Confidence Interval (%)

Percent of households that include both the household

15.7

±1.9

head's children and grandchildren

Percent of households by type of member defined by

relationship to household head

Spouse

60.3

±1.6

Sibling

9.7

±3.7

Children

53.6

±5.7

Grandchildren

19.1

±1.3

Parents

10.4

±.2

Grandparents

1.5

±.2

Aunt/ uncle

0.6

±.8

Other

7.8

±3.1

Notes: Estimates are weighted to be representative of HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt in via postcard. Sample sizes are unweighted. The confidence interval is computed at the 95 percent level.

Source: 2014–2015 Urban Institute Household Survey of HHCA Beneficiaries on the Waiting List for a Lease on the Hawaiian Home Lands Income and Poverty

pensions), they appeared to have higher

rates of receipt for means-tested public cash

Households on the waiting list had

assistance than did other groups. About 20

substantially lower incomes than did other

percent of households on the waiting list

groups in Hawaii. The median annual

received public cash assistance compared

household income of those on the waiting

with about 7 percent of Native Hawaiian

list was about $48,350 (in 2010 dollars),

households and households on the sampled

according to the research team’s survey.41

Hawaiian home lands and 3 percent of

This median income was considerably less

residents of Hawaii households.

than the median income for Native Hawaiian

households ($62,900) and all households in

Housing Conditions: Problems and

Hawaii ($66,500) during the 2006-to-2010

Needs

period.

The household survey included questions

Although 80 percent of households on the

about housing quantity, quality, and

waiting list received income from wages

affordability that paralleled questions used

or a salary and although large shares

by the U.S. Census Bureau in the decennial

also received income from retirement or

census and ACS (see section 4, exhibit 4.6

pensions (44 percent from Social Security

for definitions). The survey provided

or Railroad Retirement and 39 percent from

retirement, survivor, or disability

41  The median household income in nominal dollars was $52,531. To compare this figure with other analyses in this report, it was converted to 2010 dollars by using the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Inflation Calculator. Because surveys were conducted in both 2014

and 2015, the amount in 2010 dollars was calculated using each of the 2014 to 2010 and 2015 to 2010 Consumer Price Index adjustments ($48,385.96 and $48,328.60, respectively). The average of these two amounts ($48,357.28) was used as the 2010 median household income.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List additional detail about housing conditions

percent of households on the waiting list

and satisfaction with housing that is also

were overcrowded, which is about twice

presented here.

the rate of overcrowding for households

on the sample of Hawaiian home lands (19

Housing Problems and Needs:

percent). The disparity between households

Quantity

on the waiting list and the state’s Native

Hawaiian and residents of Hawaii households

Households on the waiting list typically

was even larger: only 15 percent of Native

lived in units with three bedrooms and one

Hawaiian households and 8 percent of

to two bathrooms. About 40 percent of

residents of Hawaii households were

these households lived in three-bedroom

overcrowded. Households on the waiting

units, 21 percent lived in two-bedroom

list were also much more likely to be

units, and 11 percent lived in one-bedroom

severely overcrowded.42 About 13 percent of

units. Of the remaining 29 percent of

households on the waiting list were severely

the households on the waiting list, 20

overcrowded compared with 6 percent

percent lived in units with four bedrooms

of households on the sampled Hawaiian

and 9 percent lived in units with five or

home lands, 5 percent of Native Hawaiian

more bedrooms. Further, 45 percent of

households statewide, and 3 percent of

households had one bathroom and 39

residents of Hawaii households. Further, of

percent had two (exhibit 5.5).

the households on the waiting list looking to

Overcrowding was substantially more

move from their current unit (41 percent of

prevalent among households on the waiting

all households), about 19 percent were living

list than other groups. About 38

in overcrowded housing.

42  HUD categorizes a housing unit as severely overcrowded if it has more than 1.5 persons per room.

Exhibit 5.5. Households by Housing Unit Characteristics Among Waiting List Households Point Estimate

Margin of Error for 95% Confidence Interval (%)

Percent of Households by Number of Bedrooms

1

11.1

±.8

2

20.5

±4.9

3

39.6

±10.2

4

19.8

±0.7

5 or more

9.0

±5.1

Percent of Households by Number of Bathrooms

1

44.7

±3.6

2

38.9

±1.7

3

12.7

±2.2

4 or more

2.6

±0.6

Source: Source: 2014-15 Urban Institute household survey of native Hawaiians

Notes: Estimates are weighted to be representative of Native Hawaiians living on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt-in via postcard.

The confidence interval is computed at the 95% level.

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Housing Problems and Needs:

Conditions

Quality

Although less than 10 percent of households

Facilities

on the waiting list reported being

dissatisfied with their current housing and

Households on the waiting list reported a

11 percent indicated that the overall physical

greater incidence of facilities deficiencies

condition of their unit was unacceptable,

than did Hawaiian home lands

respondents noted problems across a

households, Native Hawaiian households,

range of physical condition issues: pests

and residents of Hawaii households.

such as rodents, insects, or termites (63

About 10 percent of households on the

percent); peeling paint (25 percent); mold

waiting list had incomplete plumbing

(15 percent); holes or open cracks in walls or

facilities, which is 10 times the 1-percent

ceiling (14 percent); and visible holes in the

rate in the other three groups. About 7

floor (4 percent) (exhibit 5.6). In response

percent of households on the waiting

to a series of open-ended questions about

list had incomplete kitchen facilities

dissatisfaction with their current housing,

compared with 1 percent of households

respondents also reported problems related

on sampled Hawaiian home lands and 2

to maintenance and upkeep and the age of

percent of Native Hawaiian and residents

the housing unit.

of Hawaii households.43 Of households on

the waiting list, about 15 percent lived

Housing Problems and Needs: Price

in units that had a plumbing or kitchen

deficiency, about 5 percent experienced

A larger share of households on the waiting

a heating or electrical deficiency, and 12

list experienced cost burden (paying 30

percent experienced some other type of

percent or more of their income for housing)

condition deficiency.

than did the other groups, but a smaller

share of households on the waiting list was

severely cost burdened (paying

43  The standard kitchen deficiency measure has been altered by dropping whether the unit had built-in burners in working order, because responses indicated that the survey question may have been misinterpreted by respondents. Given this possible misinterpretation, the rate of incomplete kitchen facilities calculated may underestimate the true rate.

Exhibit 5.6. Households by Condition Issues Among Waiting List Households

Point Estimate

Margin of Error for 95% Confidence Interval (%)

Percent of households with the fol owing interior conditions

Visible holes in the floor

3.5

±.7

Holes or open cracks in walls or ceiling

13.7

±2.6

Peeling paint

24.5

±1.6

Signs of rats (or other vermin)

62.7

±4.5

Mold

15.4

±7.5

Notes: Estimates are weighted to be representative of HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt in via postcard. Sample sizes are unweighted. "n" refers to the total number of respondents who were asked the question. The confidence interval is computed at the 95 percent level.

Source: 2014–2015 Urban Institute Household Survey of HHCA Beneficiaries on the Waiting List for a Lease on the Hawaiian Home Lands HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List 50 percent of more of their income on

(3) those living on the Hawaiian home

housing). About 46 percent of households

lands, and (4) HHCA beneficiaries on the

on the waiting list were cost burdened

waiting list for the Hawaiian home lands.

compared with 42 percent of residents of

This subsection highlights key differences

Hawaii households, 40 percent of Native

among these groups (exhibit 5.7). The

Hawaiian households, and 21 percent of

analysis showed overall that households

households on the sampled Hawaiian home

on the waiting list tended to be most

lands. About 22 percent of households on

demographically similar to households living

the waiting list were severely cost burdened

on the Hawaiian home lands, but households

compared with 33 percent of Native

on the waiting list experienced the highest

Hawaiian households and 34 percent of

rates of disadvantage and housing problems.

residents of Hawaii households. The lower

The following bullet points address the

rates of severe cost burden for households

specific key differences.

on the waiting list could be due to their

higher rates of overcrowding, which they

•  Households on the waiting list and

may use as an affordability strategy. It is

households on sampled Hawaiian home

notable, however, that even with nearly two

lands were less mobile and had larger

in five households on the waiting list living in

households than did Native Hawaiian and

overcrowded circumstances, almost one-

residents of Hawaii households.

half of those households spend more than

•  Households on the waiting list and

30 percent of their income on housing. In

households on home lands also had lower

addition, households on the waiting list did

shares of single-parent households than

not commonly receive housing subsidies.

did Native Hawaiian households.

Of all households on the waiting list, only

22 percent reported ever having lived in

•  Heads of households on the waiting list

subsidized housing.

had a slightly lower employment rate than

members of Native Hawaiian households

Despite these affordability challenges, only

residing in Hawaii but had a higher rate

a small share of households on the waiting

than members of households on the

list indicated the need to move out of their

Hawaiian home lands.

unit in the near future. Only about 5 percent

of owners and 3 percent of renters expected

•  Households on the waiting list had

to leave their homes. Among owners, the

substantially lower incomes and received

reasons for leaving included being unable

public cash assistance at much higher

to afford their mortgage and having a home

rates than did households on Hawaiian

in foreclosure. Among renters, reasons

home lands, Native Hawaiian households,

included expecting eviction within 60 days,

and residents of Hawaii households.

being asked to leave so someone else could

•  Households on the waiting list

move in, and being asked to leave because

experienced all types of housing

they were behind on their payments.

problems (overcrowding, quality,

Summarizing Differences Among

affordability) at higher rates than did

Groups

households on Hawaiian home lands,

Native Hawaiian households, and

The previous sections describe the

residents of Hawaii households.

characteristics and needs of four groups:

(1) Native Hawaiians, (2) residents of Hawaii,

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Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List Exhibit 5.7. Comparison of Waiting List Households, Residents of the Sampled Hawaiian Home Lands, Native Hawaiians, and Residents of Hawaii, 2006 to 2010 and 2014 to 2015

Waiting List Households

Residents of Sampled Hawaiian

State Native Hawaiians

State Residents of Hawai

Home Lands

Percent of the population living

94.6

94.5

86.1

84.2

in the same place as the year

before

Percent of households by type

Married couples with children

25.4

24.8

23

19.6

Single-parent households

8.5

8.6

14.6

6.3

with children

Percent of households that

38.5

39.6

26.5

14.1

were large (five or more

members)

Employment rate *

59.5

57.7

61.9

59.1

Rate of public cash assistance

19.5

6.7

7.1

2.7

receipt**

Median household income***

48,357

66,901

62,852

66,420

Percent of households that

38.4

19.3

15.3

7.8

were overcrowded

Percent of households that

13.3

5.8

4.7

2.7

were severely overcrowded

Percent of households with

9.6

0.8

1.1

0.7

incomplete plumbing

Percent of households with

6.8

1

1.9

1.5

incomplete kitchen****

Percent of households that

46

20.7

40.1

41.9

were cost burdened

Percent of households that

21.6

32.9

33.9

were severely cost burdened

* The employment rate for waiting list households is for the household head only; the employment rates for the other categories are for the entire population age 16 and older.

** The American Community Survey asked households for the amount of income they receive from "Any public assistance or welfare payments from the state or local welfare office," while the household survey identified Temporary Assistance for Needy Families and general assistance. The different wording of the public assistance question in the two surveys may account for some of the observed difference between waiting list households and the other groups.

***The median household income in the State Residents of Hawaii column is for the total population of Hawaii, because the median for non-Native Hawaiians was not available from the U.S. Census Bureau. Further, the waiting list household median income was converted to 2010

dollars using the following method: The median household income in nominal dollars was $52,531. To compare this figure with our other analyses, we converted it to 2010 dollars using the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Inflation Calculator. Because surveys were conducted in both 2014 and 2015, we calculated the amount in 2010 dollars using each of the 2014-to-2010 and 2015-to-2010 Consumer Price Index adjustments ($48,385.96 and $48,328.60, respectively). Then we took the average of these two amounts ($48,357.28).

****The standard kitchen deficiency measure for waiting list households was altered by dropping the question regarding whether the unit has built-in burners in working order. Responses indicate that participants may have misinterpreted the relevant survey question.

Notes: Estimates are weighted to be representative of HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for housing on the Hawaiian home lands who would opt in via postcard.

Source: 2014–2015 Urban Institute Household Survey of Native Hawaiians on the Waiting List for a Lease on the Hawaiian Home Lands; data for the other groups come from the U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census 2010 and 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, selected population tables.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

Section 6. Housing Policies  Hawaii. Other stakeholders also noted

that households on the waiting list turn

and Programs

down leases because they face barriers to

securing the necessary loan. This pattern

of turning down lease offers and the

associated reasons were confirmed in the

This section discusses Hawaiian home

survey of households on the waiting list.

lands policies and other housing assistance

The waiting list cycling leads to a common

programs available to Native Hawaiians (and

misperception that the waiting list does

to other low-income residents of Hawaii)

not move or that people are “passed over”

and examines homeownership and access

for leases.

to mortgages. The research team’s review of

policy documents and research reports was

•  Homestead associations, beneficiary-

enhanced by discussions with stakeholders,

controlled organizations that represent

ongoing discussions with the State of

and serve the interests of their respective

Hawaii’s Department of Hawaiian Home

homestead communities, often engage in

Lands (DHHL), and the survey of households

work related to economic development

on the waiting list.

and self-sufficiency, community

development, cultural preservation,

Key Findings

community organizing, and improving

overall quality of life. DHHL supports

Key findings for this section include—

homestead associations through the

•  The Hawaiian home lands are the only

provision of training and technical

source of land and housing reserved

assistance and grantmaking and involves

exclusively for Native Hawaiians and

the associations through its beneficiary

eligibility for housing on the Hawaiian

consultation process in its policy

home lands is limited to the definition

development, its regional and island-

included in the Hawaiian Homes

level planning processes, and other major

Commission Act (HHCA). DHHL provides

program developments.

homestead leases and housing assistance.

•  HHCA beneficiaries tended to prefer

Within DHHL, the Land Development

free-standing homes. In the survey of

Division, the Homestead Services Division,

households on the waiting list, 60 percent

and the HALE Program (financial literacy

of the respondents listed an improved lot

services) manage the waiting list and the

with a new house as their first choice, and

offering and awarding of available lots.

46 percent listed an improved lot with

•  DHHL cycles through the waiting lists

an existing house as their second choice.

every few years as lots are completed, but

Further, only one-half of the households

most people do not assume a lease when

on the waiting list would be willing to

their name comes up. DHHL reported that

accept a townhouse or multiplex unit

applicants turn down leases because they

rather than a single-family unit in an effort

do not qualify for a loan if the offering is

to get a home faster.

a turnkey award, are not interested in the

•  In previous years, DHHL prioritized

lot available, are waiting for property in

turnkey developments and did not offer

a specific area, believe they are too old

as many vacant lot (owner-build) options.

to take on a mortgage, or are living on

Some stakeholders think this practice

the mainland and not ready to return to

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

has made it harder for low- to moderate-

this authority. Stakeholders noted that

income Native Hawaiians to have a lease

the prevailing wage rates are often higher

on the Hawaiian home lands due to the

than market or labor union wage rates,

higher cost of those homes. DHHL has

increasing the cost of labor.

piloted some rental and rent-to-own

models as a strategy to better meet

Hawaiian Home Lands Assistance

the needs of some lower-income HHCA

History of Hawaiian Landownership

beneficiaries. DHHL more recently revised

its planned offerings to allow for more

Hawaiian home lands assistance grew out

vacant lot opportunities for more owner-

of changes in the land system in Hawaii

build or self-help options for prospective

and the displacement of Native Hawaiians

lessees.

from their traditional lands. Before contact

with Europeans and the subsequent arrival

•  The trust nature of the land is a major

of traders, whalers, missionaries, settlers,

constraint with building or purchasing

and other foreigners, inhabitants of Hawaii

homes on Hawaiian home lands. Private

had no concept of private landownership.

lenders are unwilling to lend to an HHCA

Land tenure was hierarchical. The basic land

beneficiary homebuyer because no

unit was controlled by a chief acting akin to

mechanism would be in place to foreclose

a trustee, with land agents and subchiefs

in the event of a borrower’s default. To

managing smaller amounts of land. At the

address this issue, a variety of federal

bottom of the hierarchy, farmers worked

programs have been designed to support

the land to the common benefit. The arrival

homeownership on Hawaiian home lands.

of Westerners altered the socioeconomic

•  DHHL staff highlighted a number of ways

patterns, with the economy turning from

they use Native Hawaiian Housing Block

primarily subsistence-based farming to one

Grant (NHHBG) funds, including capital

involved in international trade, disrupting

improvement, mortgage and home-

traditional notions of land rights and

repair loan financing, loss mitigation,

responsibilities (Levy, 1975).

and grants for model activities. Model

The 1840s marked the beginning of private

activities include safety enhancements,

landownership in Hawaii. An 1846 statute

organizational support, community

established a board of commissioners to

policing, and other model activities that

overhaul the traditional land system. The

incorporate educational, cultural, and

period that followed is called the Great

recreational activities for affordable-

Mahele, which involved the division of

housing residents.

land formerly controlled by the king and

•  One challenge related to Native

chiefs among the king, the chiefs, and the

American Housing Assistance and Self-

government. Commoners were allowed to

Determination Act (NAHASDA) funding is

submit claims for parcels of land to which

that, because NHHBG is a federal funding

they had a rightful claim under law. Although

stream, DHHL must pay prevailing wages

the Great Mahele was promoted as a

as determined by the Davis-Bacon Act

benefit to the Hawaiian people, it ultimately

wage requirements. Although American

contributed to dispossession for most

Indian and Alaska Native tribes can apply

Hawaiians, because only a small proportion

their own prevailing wage rates in lieu of

of the land was distributed to commoners.

the federal ones, DHHL does not have

In the aftermath of the Great Mahele, many

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

members of the Native Hawaiian community

In section 223 of HHCA, Congress reserved

were further alienated from traditional

to itself the right to alter, amend, or repeal

lands, because some of the allotments were

HHCA. Consistent with this provision,

of poor quality for subsistence activities

section 4 of the Admission Act provides

or were less useable because they were

limitations on the State’s administration of

scattered near or throughout ranches and

the Hawaiian Home Lands program and

plantations, unprotected from cattle or

the federally created Hawaiian Home Lands

ranch activities. By the end of this process,

Funds (hereafter referred to together as

Native Hawaiians found themselves with

the Trust) and also provides that HHCA

legal control of only a very small proportion

is subject to amendment or repeal by the

of the islands (La Crois and Roumasset,

State only with the consent of the Congress

1990; Linnekin, 1987).

of the United States. Recognizing, however,

that it was vesting the State with day-to-

Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of

day administrative authority, Congress,

1920

in section 4 of the Admission Act, also

The HHCA of 1920, as amended, was

provided exceptions within which the

passed by Congress and signed into law by

State could amend certain administrative

President Warren Harding on July 9, 1921.44

provisions of HHCA without the consent

It provides for the self-sufficiency and well-

of the Congress. HHCA is a cooperative

being of the Native Hawaiian people through

federalism statute, a compound of

a government-sponsored homesteading

interdependent federal and state law that

program. Under HHCA,  Native Hawaiian

establishes a federal law but also provides

means a descendant of the aboriginal

for implementation through state law.47

people who, prior to 1778, occupied and

Although Congress has repeatedly

exercised sovereignty in the area that now

acknowledged its special political and

constitutes the State of Hawaii.45

trust relationship with the Native Hawaiian

HHCA created a Hawaiian Homes

community since the overthrow of the

Commission to administer more than

Kingdom of Hawaii more than a century ago,

200,000 acres of public lands in trust for

the federal government does not maintain

the benefit of Native Hawaiians on the

a formal government-to-government

islands of Hawaii, Kauai Lanai, Maui, Molokai,

relationship with the Native Hawaiian

and Oahu. In 1959, Congress enacted the

community as an organized, sovereign

Hawaii Admission Act (Admission Act)46

entity. Further, no single agency in Hawaii

to admit the Territory of Hawaii into the

is responsible for housing for the Native

United States as a state. In compliance with

Hawaiian community, unlike the tribally

the Admission Act, a compact was to be

designated housing entities (TDHEs) or tribal

adopted with the United States relating to

housing departments that operate housing

the management and disposition of the

programs in most other Native American

Hawaiian home lands, and the new State

communities. DHHL provides homestead

of Hawaii adopted HHCA, as amended,

leases and housing assistance only to those

through article XII of its constitution.

Native Hawaiians eligible for

44  Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1920, as amended, chapter 42, 42 Stat. 108.

45  Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1920, as amended, Title 2, Section 201(a).

46  Hawaii Admission Act of 1959, 73 Stat. 4. Section 1

47  See CFR Parts 47 and 48  Federal Register, 80 (91) May 12, 2015.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

housing on the Hawaiian home lands under

homestead associations are voluntary

the HHCA definition. Other Hawaiians who

groups of residents that, although their

do not qualify as HHCA beneficiaries must

specific activities vary, often engage in

seek assistance through housing assistance

work related to economic development and

programs serving all residents of Hawaii.48

self-sufficiency, community development,

cultural preservation, community organizing,

As discussed in section 5, DHHL maintains

and improving overall quality of life.

and manages the HHCA beneficiary

Examples of recent activities follow.

waiting list for homestead leases, and the

demand is consistently greater than the

•  Organizing community health and cultural

supply. In its 2012–2017 Strategic Goals and

education programs and events.

Objectives document (DHHL, 2012), DHHL

recognizes this supply issue and includes

•  Sponsoring cultural events featuring

objectives designed to expand “residential

Hawaiian dance, music, and crafts.

homesteading opportunities into areas such

•  Building a community center, cultural

as Kauhale, multi-family homes, rental and

center, or medical center.

transitional units.” DHHL indicates that its

most recent initiative provides subsistence

•  Promoting homestead cottage industries,

agricultural lots for qualifying Native

including providing space for production

Hawaiians interested in a rural lifestyle and

and sales through local markets.

an opportunity for self-help and owner-build

•  Supporting a community garden to

options on these lots, which are often more

educate the community on local plants

affordable. This shift represents a departure

and foods.

from the existing emphasis on owner-

occupied single-family homes on long-term

•  Developing and implementing

leased lots. In addition to administering the

conservation plans.

homesteading program, DHHL leases trust

lands not in homestead use at market value

•  Hosting community work days for

and issues revocable permits, licenses, and

community cleanup, planting native

rights-of-entry. The income from these

plants, or development projects such as

enterprises is used to supplement DHHL’s

building fences to control soil erosion.

programs, including continued homestead

•  Organizing volunteer activities, such as

development (DHHL, n.d. [a]).

community service.

Homestead Associations and

Homeowner Associations

Some of these organizations are nonprofit

organizations that have federal tax-

A homestead association is a beneficiary-

exempt status, and some are incorporated

controlled organization that represents

community development corporations.

and serves the interests of its homestead

Some homestead associations have also

community and has as its stated purpose

joined together in larger community

the representation of and provision of

development, community service, and

services to its homestead community.

advocacy organizations. One example

According to DHHL, about 50 homestead

is the Kapolei Community Development

associations are in the various communities

Corporation, a collaboration of three or four

on the Hawaiian home lands. These

homestead communities that aims to

48  The State of Hawaii Office of Hawaiian Affairs has from time to time established programs to assist Native Hawaiians with housing needs.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

promote family and cultural preservation.

maintenance of the community, which

The Sovereign Councils of the Hawaiian

are developed to protect property values,

Homelands Assembly, an aggregate group

preserve the characteristics of the homestead

that includes more than 20 homestead

community, and establish the responsibilities

communities, engages in advocacy work

of its members. Failure to comply with these

to preserve the HHCA of 1920 and the land

rules could lead to the imposition of fines or,

trust. It also advocates for the interests of

ultimately, in some cases, lease cancellation

Hawaiian home lands beneficiaries, including

(DHHL, n.d. [b]). Although some stakeholders

supporting a role for beneficiaries in

argued that HOAs are particularly necessary

decisionmaking, and works to build the self-

to preserve home values, a goal that is

sufficiency of member associations.

outside of DHHL’s stated mission, others said

that HOAs can create cultural appropriateness

DHHL supports homestead associations

challenges, because some rules, such as

through the provision of training and

prohibition of food-producing plants in a

technical assistance and grantmaking,

yard or leaving shoes outside, conflict with

involves the associations in its program and

traditional Native Hawaiian cultural practices.

policy development and its decisionmaking

regarding land use and long-term land

Housing Preferences Among

dispositions, and involves the associations

Residents on Hawaiian Home Lands

in its regional planning processes. DHHL

and Households on the Waiting List

also provides homestead associations with

leadership training, supports them in project

This subsection discusses findings

planning and in applying for tax-exempt

concerning location, home size and features,

status, and has conducted a small number of

community amenities, and preferences

environmental assessments for homestead

for homeownership or renting based on

associations. It has also provided grants to

the stakeholder interviews and survey of

support a range of homestead association

households on the waiting list.

projects, including association development

(for example, increasing membership, board

Location

training, and strategic planning), events

Location emerged as an important factor:

(for example, festivals), community and

households were willing to postpone

land development (for example, building

accepting a homestead lease in order to

a community center, supporting a farmers

get an offer in the right location. Of those

market), and self-policing programs.

households on the waiting list that had

In addition, about a dozen homestead

received a previous lease offer, nearly one-

communities have homeowner associations

half (46 percent) turned it down because

(HOAs). HOAs in Hawaiian home land

they did not like the location. Further, 60

communities are mostly in newer, turnkey

percent of all households on the waiting list

communities and have come into being

would not be willing to accept a lease in a

through two primary means. In some cases,

less desirable location in order to receive a

HOAs were already in place before DHHL’s

home faster. Some stakeholders mentioned

acquisition of the land, so these communities

that certain areas are preferred because they

came with preexisting HOAs. In others, the

have strong Native Hawaiian communities

communities chose to adopt HOAs. The HOA

and are often more affordable (for example,

is responsible for promulgating and enforcing

the leeward side of Oahu Island and the

rules and guidelines for the operation and

eastern Hilo side of Hawaii Island).

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

Home Features

factors in their housing preferences. When

asked to report their most desired feature

Most of the stakeholders said that the

in a new home, the three most popular

cultural values surrounding family drive

answers that households reported were

Native Hawaiians’ desire for larger homes

more indoor space (19 percent), a certain

that can accommodate multifamily or

number of bedrooms and/or bathrooms

extended family households. Having room

(19 percent), and a home with a yard or

to expand the home or build an additional

patio (14 percent).

home on the lot was desirable. Having

sufficient onstreet and offstreet parking to

Homeownership

accommodate all cars in a large household

Several stakeholders noted that Native

was also considered desirable. Stakeholders

Hawaiians tend to prefer homeownership

suggested that people often prefer older

over renting. A 2008 survey by the State

homesteads, which have larger lots, so they

of Hawaii Office of Hawaiian Affairs

can accommodate these preferences.

substantiated this point. Survey results

Stakeholders also noted preferences

indicated that 70 percent of Native

among Native Hawaiians for large outdoor

Hawaiians on the waiting list for a Section 8

gathering spaces and climate-appropriate

Housing Choice Voucher said they preferred

features. Native Hawaiians prefer to use

homeownership to renting compared with

outdoor areas like lanais and garages for

42 percent of other residents of Hawaii.

gathering places and prefer these areas to

Further, in the survey of households

be large “so people can come together.”

on the waiting list, less than 5 percent

Some stakeholders also indicated that

of households listed an apartment or

outdoor kitchens are desirable and noted a

condominium (types more commonly

preference for large hallways and windows

associated with renting) as their first or

placed to allow for natural drafts and

second choice type of DHHL property.49 By

ventilation, because it not only reflects island

contrast, 60 percent listed an improved lot

living but also reduces cooling costs.

with a new house as their first choice, and

46 percent listed an improved lot with an

According to the household survey, HHCA

existing house as their second choice. Only

beneficiaries on the waiting list had similar

one-half of the households on the waiting

preferences to Hawaiian home lands

list would be willing to accept a townhouse

residents. The feature mentioned most

or multiplex unit rather than a single-family

often, by 68 percent of respondents, was

unit in order to get a home faster.

“structurally conducive to climate,” which

included features such as lanais, windows

Stakeholders gave several reasons that could

for cross-ventilation, and shading with roof

be driving this preference. First, attaining

line extensions. Exterior appearance was

homeownership in general is a source of

mentioned by 65 percent of respondents,

pride. They also noted the status that is

followed by land to grow Hawaiian plants,

attached to having homeownership through

fruits, and flowers (61 percent); parking for

a Hawaiian home lands lease; the lease

ohana, or extended family (59 percent); and

indicates a connection to family, land, and

number and types of rooms (55 percent).

Native Hawaiian identity. A few stakeholders

Of the respondents, 37 percent stated that

also thought Native Hawaiians preferred

such features were extremely important

homeownership because they perceive

49  Other options included improved lot with no house, improved lot with existing house, improved lot with new house, and townhouse or duplex.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

fewer rules associated with it than with

the offering and award of available lots. Lots

leasing. Older home land communities may

become available individually when leases

also be preferred to newer developments

are surrendered or cancelled (for example,

with HOAs and the regulations that

due to failure to pay loans or improve lots as

accompany them.

agreed). Lots also become available when

DHHL develops a planned community for

The household survey asked HHCA

contractor-built, self-help, and/or owner-

beneficiaries on the waiting list about the

build homes. The previous focus for DHHL

services and amenities that are most needed

was on turnkey developments rather than

in their community, community attributes

other development models. DHHL’s house

that were most important to them, and

production volume varies. They had one

features they were looking for in a new

project with 200 houses built in 1 year, but

community. The amenity that respondents

the most current cycle as of July 2014 had

most frequently mentioned was a grocery

only about 100 houses planned.

store or supermarket (60 percent), followed

by medical services (50 percent). The most

Eligibility and the Residential Waiting

sought-after features in a new community

List

were good housing quality, opportunity to

grow things, less crime and fewer safety

DHHL reported that it cycles through the

concerns, and more affordable housing,

waiting lists every few years, as lots are

all mentioned by more than three-fourths

completed, but most people do not assume

of respondents. Further, most households

a lease when their name moves to the top

cited the importance of personal ties when

of the list. Applicants’ reasons (as reported

asked about whether certain reasons were

to DHHL) for turning down a lease offer

important to them for wanting to live in a

included that they did not qualify for a loan

particular community. More than 60 percent

for a turnkey offering, were not interested in

of households on the waiting list said that

the lot available, were waiting for property

having family and friends in a community,

in a specific area, believed they were too old

having always lived in a community or

to take on a mortgage, or were living on the

having historic ties there, or the ability to

mainland and were not ready to return to

be an active member in the community as

Hawaii. Individuals may also be on the list for

either very important or important in their

a long time if they want leases for each of

choice of community. Further, 72 percent

their children, who have less than 50 percent

of the respondents listed the availability of

blood quantum. Because people can be on

government subsidies or assistance as very

the waiting list for only one residential lease

important or important.

at a time, additional leases that they wish

to transfer require them to go through the

Current DHHL Policies and

process again,50 with no guarantee they will

Implications

be offered another lease due to constraints

imposed by DHHL’s rules. Other stakeholders

Within DHHL, the Land Development

in addition to DHHL staff also noted that

Division, Homestead Services Division, and

households on the waiting list cycle through

HALE Program manage the waiting list and

the waiting list because they face barriers

50  The home lands have three types of leases: (1) residential (for a home to live in), (2) agricultural (for farming), and (3) pastoral (for ranch-ing). Each individual may be on up to two waiting lists at a time, residential and agricultural or residential and pastoral, and may receive only one lot at a time. After receiving a lot, the individual may return to the waiting list, although the rules place conditions and restrictions on his or her ability to receive another residential lease (see Hawaii Administrative Rules 10-3-7 and 10-3-23).

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

to securing the necessary loan, such as

need to be reassessed to reflect this reality,

insufficient downpayment, poor credit history,

so that Native Hawaiians can continue to

or insufficient income. Several stakeholders

benefit from the Hawaiian home lands. Other

reported that some people on the waiting

stakeholders disagreed that this was an issue.

list never intend to take a lot but remain on

DHHL has not seen any decline in the rate of

the list because it is perceived to have status

applications or leases. No data exist on the

associated with it. A common misperception

blood quantum or degree of ancestry among

is that the waiting list does not move or that

Native Hawaiians, so it is difficult to assess

people are “passed over” for leases.

the concern about this issue.

These trends were confirmed in the survey

DHHL Prioritization of Turnkey

of households on the waiting list. About

Development

55 percent of households had received an

offer for a lease award from DHHL. Of those,

In previous years, DHHL prioritized

about 65 percent had received one to five

turnkey developments in preference to

offers, and 35 percent had received more

owner-build and other developments.

than five offers. The most common reasons

To some stakeholders, DHHL’s focus on

for not accepting an offer included not liking

building turnkey developments as the

the location (46 percent), not thinking they

primary mechanism for making leases

would qualify for the loan (32 percent), and

was problematic because they believed

not being able to relocate (11 percent).

this practice made it harder for low- to

moderate-income HHCA beneficiaries to

Several stakeholders also thought that

have a lease on the Hawaiian home lands

some HHCA beneficiaries do not put

due to the higher cost of those homes. As

themselves on the waiting list because of

one stakeholder commented, “When your

misperceptions about the trust’s intended

name comes up, you used to get a lot, but

beneficiaries. These stakeholders mentioned

now you have to be able to build or buy

that people have a common perception that

on the lot.” DHHL’s shift to more expensive

the trust is meant to or should benefit low-

housing development may have exacerbated

income people or those who do not already

the problem of people staying on the

own a house. If this misperception changed

waiting list for extended periods of time.

and these people joined the waiting list,

stakeholders estimated the waiting list

According to DHHL, the department’s

would be much longer.

earlier focus on turnkey developments was

based, in part, on the need to efficiently and

Some stakeholders anticipated potential

expeditiously manage the homebuilding

eligibility issues in the near future related

and awards process and DHHL’s previous

to the blood quantum requirement; other

experience with owner-build and self-help

stakeholders felt strongly that this was

awards. In the past, DHHL opened up lots

not an issue. Some stakeholders worried

and communities using an owner-build or

that, if trends of greater growth among the

self-help model in which the owner was

multiracial Native Hawaiian population persist,

responsible for building a home within a

as time passes, fewer Native Hawaiians will

certain period of time. Some of the homes

meet the 50 percent requirement for lease

being completed had issues with long

eligibility and the 25 percent requirement

delays because of lack of access to capital,

for successorship. They were of the opinion

unexpected costs, builder scams, and other

that eligibility requirements eventually would

factors, leaving unimproved or partially

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

improved lots in communities that were

location and steep or rocky terrain. Even

otherwise complete. Stakeholders thought

when these challenges do not make

some self-help projects had failed because

development impossible, they increase

the planning and construction effort lacked

development costs. Some stakeholders

sufficient structure, and consequently some

believed that the lack of easily developable

lessees’ homes were not built. DHHL tries

land contributed to the lack of affordable

to enforce leases if the lessees violate the

products provided by DHHL. DHHL

lease by not building or using unapproved

purchases and exchanges trust land with

housing like buses, but it is reluctant to

other owners, but this practice is difficult

start the lease cancellation process because

when the land it has available for exchange

it ultimately wants the lots developed and

is considered undesirable. Land-quality

for people to be housed. In addition, the

issues limit DHHL’s development activities,

lease cancellation process is expensive

which contributes to the perception that

and time consuming, because finding the

DHHL is not making enough leases and

lessees can be challenging and requires a

homes available to HHCA beneficiaries.

public notice process.

Aligning Development To Target

Despite challenges related to undeveloped

Population Needs and Preferences

lots and varied construction quality,

several stakeholders emphasized that

One of the most common critiques of

people need to have options other

DHHL’s approach to housing development

than contractor-built homes. Although

is that it does not meet the needs of its

stakeholders noted that some lessees,

target population, including financial

likely those who are older or otherwise

capacity, life-cycle changes, and cultural

unable to build their own home, will prefer

preferences. Some stakeholders emphasized

the contractor model; others have skills

the mismatch between the price of DHHL

that facilitate building a home that meets

homes and the disproportionately lower-

their needs in their price point without

income population that DHHL serves.

a contractor. They also emphasized that

Stakeholders explained that many DHHL

people need more time to build because

homes have sales prices in the $200,000-

some will be building slowly as they have

to-$300,000 or higher range, which low-

the money. Self-help homes were reported

and moderate-income Native Hawaiians

to be very affordable, with a mortgage

cannot afford.

at completion for a three-bedroom, two-

Stakeholders suggested using package

bathroom home at about $70,000.51

homes, manufactured homes, and container

Developable Land

homes to bring down housing prices on

Hawaiian home lands. Package homes

One issue that DHHL contends with is the

are packages with the plans and materials

quality of the land. DHHL reported that

needed to build a home that can be put

much of the undeveloped land in the trust

up by a contractor or even a homeowner.

is undevelopable for residential purposes

DHHL reported that it is possible to get

because of its remote or inaccessible

an assembled package home for about

$150,000. By comparison, the least

51  DHHL reported that it is has recently reviewed its lot offerings and adjusted the options to include a much larger number of vacant lots for applicants interested in an owner-build option or a self-help option. Stakeholder interviews were conducted in July 2014, before DHHL

made these changes.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

expensive turnkey home is about $230,000.

•  One Oahu homestead community included

Package homes are considered a good

111 turnkey homes, 70 rentals with option to

option for lower-income owner-builders.

purchase, and 45 self-help homes.

Stakeholders mentioned they would buy

the packages in bulk and release them

•  DHHL also supported the development

as needed to further contain costs to

of rental housing on Nanakuli, an existing

lessees. Stakeholders also suggested other

homestead. The 48-unit building has

types of manufactured or modular homes

one- to three-bedroom units and is

and container homes. Although some

on property leased to the homestead

stakeholders also mentioned mobile homes,

association and developed and managed

which can be an affordable type of housing,

by the association’s partner organizations.

no mobile homes are manufactured on the

It targets low-income tenants by setting

islands, and shipping from the mainland can

pricing at 30 percent of the tenant’s

be cost prohibitive. To assist with financing,

income. The rental housing is attached

DHHL recently rolled out a new “package

to a community center and has services

home” financial product using NAHASDA

nearby. This project, the first of its kind,

funds for NAHASDA-eligible lessees with

was financed by the U.S. Department of

vacant lots that are owner-build (with a

Agriculture, a Community Development

licensed contractor).

Block Grant (CDBG), and low-income

housing tax credits on land leased from

Most of the key stakeholders interviewed

DHHL at a very low rate. Because the

suggested the rental model as a strategy

project used CDBG and other federal

to better meet the needs of some lower-

funding, however, occupancy could not be

income Native Hawaiians. Providing rental

restricted to Native Hawaiians.

units is a challenge for DHHL because

it does not take people off the waiting

•  Another model on Waimanalo homestead

list for a homestead lease, its central

provides affordable rentals for elderly

mission. Further, Native Hawaiians prefer

Native Hawaiians on land leased from

homeownership over rental. Stakeholders

DHHL. The 81-unit development is fully

also suggested that some kind of affordable

rented and has a waiting list. The rental

or below-market rental transitional housing

units are owned and managed by a

would be useful while people are waiting for

nonprofit organization. One challenge

a lease or preparing to qualify for a lease.

with senior housing is an observed

One stakeholder suggested that NAHASDA

tendency for other family members to

money specifically could support rentals for

move into the senior rental unit, resulting

HHCA beneficiaries with incomes between

in overcrowding and violating the

50 and 80 percent or less than 50 percent

terms of the leases, which restrict the

of the Area Median Income (AMI).

community by residents’ age, except in

certain limited circumstances.

DHHL is piloting approaches to rental

housing and favors a rent with an option to

Although Native Hawaiians tend to prefer

purchase arrangement, because it would

larger homes that accommodate extended

ultimately get people off the waiting list. A

families and have outdoor gathering spaces,

few examples of recent projects show that

some stakeholders observed that DHHL

DHHL has begun to implement this approach

is building homes on increasingly smaller

to expand residential homesteading

lots with limited space for parking, outdoor

opportunities in new directions.

gathering areas, and room for expansion.

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

Some stakeholders also argued that DHHL

on reservations and other tribal areas. DHHL

should build a range of different types of

is the major developer of affordable housing

units to better accommodate people at

that specifically targets Native Hawaiians.

different stages of their lives (for example,

singles, couples with children, and seniors).

According to their  2014 Annual

For example, one stakeholder suggested

Performance Report (DHHL, 2014a), DHHL

that single adults might prefer condos,

has used or is planning to use these funds

townhomes, or apartments, rather than

for eligible housing-related activities,

single-family detached homes. To better

including the following.

understand these needs, stakeholders

•  Acquiring real property (land or existing

suggested that DHHL should include an

housing units) to add to the inventory of

advisory group of HHCA beneficiaries

affordable housing for Native Hawaiians.

throughout the planning process for a new

development, so that DHHL can include

•  Capitalizing a revolving loan fund for

this type of input in its decisionmaking. The

purpose of homeownership among

survey of households on the waiting list

NAHASDA-eligible Native Hawaiian

suggests (as noted previously) that most

households.

households actually prefer a single-family

•  Providing financial assistance to qualified

detached home.

prospective homeowners (for example,

Role of the Native Hawaiian

through downpayment assistance, funding

Housing Block Grant and the Native

of individual development accounts, low

American Housing Assistance and

interest-rate loans, and other products).

Self-Determination Act

•  Increasing alternative energy resources

or other programs for eligible Native

In addition to managing the Hawaiian

Hawaiian households.

Home Lands program for homesteading

opportunities by HHCA beneficiaries,

•  Reducing the number of homes in need

DHHL also administers federal grant

of repair or replacement or to relieve

funding provided through NHHBG, which is

overcrowding in homes occupied by low-

authorized by an amendment to NAHASDA.

income Native Hawaiian households.

These funds can be spent only on the

Hawaiian home lands. NHHBG has been an

•  Developing educational and training

important funding mechanism for DHHL

programs to address financial, home

in developing housing and infrastructure

repair, or home maintenance needs in

on Hawaiian home lands. DHHL is the only

eligible Native Hawaiian households.

designated recipient of NHHBG funds, and

•  Subgranting funds to support self-

their use is restricted to HHCA beneficiaries

help home repair, energy retrofits,

whose total household income is at or less

homeownership counseling, and individual

than 80 percent of the established AMI

development accounts.

levels for their respective counties and

who have, or have been offered, a lease on

•  Developing infrastructure.

the home lands. Native Hawaiians have no

equivalent of the TDHEs that receive HUD

•  Funding staff positions to administer

funds and administer HUD programs for

the program.

American Indians and Alaska Natives living

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

During stakeholder interviews, DHHL

•  Model activities grants. DHHL uses

staff highlighted a number of ways

NHHBG funds to make grants to local

they use NHHBG funds, including

public entities; nonprofit organizations,

capital improvement, environmental

including homestead organizations; and

assessments, mortgage and home-repair

for-profit corporations for activities that

loan financing, loss mitigation, and grants

address a wide variety of needs, including

for model activities.

public safety needs, organizational needs,

other model activities (such as community

•  Capital improvement. NHHBG funds

policing), and activities that incorporate

are used to subsidize infrastructure

educational, cultural, and recreational

development on previously undeveloped

activities for affordable-housing residents.

Hawaiian home lands. Lessees do not pay

The minimum grant size is $10,000,

the costs to install basic infrastructure

and the grant has no maximum and no

(for example, hookups to water,

matching requirements, except when

electricity, sewer). When the lessee

funds are used for activities within

meets the 80 percent AMI requirement,

communities. The activities must serve

these costs are paid for using NHHBG

households who meet NAHASDA’s 80

funds; when the lessee’s income is more

percent of AMI guideline.

than 80 percent AMI, the costs are

absorbed by trust funds.

NHHBG Challenges

•  Environmental assessments. NHHBG

DHHL staff reported that the NHHBG works

funds are also used to pay for

well overall and produces good outcomes

environmental assessments used in

with what they have used. DHHL and other

planning. DHHL reported that $1.5 million

stakeholders did mention several challenges.

is currently allocated for this purpose.

One challenge is the Davis-Bacon Act

•  Direct loans and home repair loans.

wage rate requirement. Because NHHBG

DHHL uses NHHBG to fund its direct

is a federal funding stream, DHHL must

loan program and its home-repair loan

pay prevailing wages as determined by

program. These programs are discussed

the Davis-Bacon Act wage requirements,

in more detail in the subsection regarding

including for self-built units. Although

mortgage access.

American Indian and Alaska Native tribes

on the continental United States can

•  Loss mitigation. DHHL uses NHHBG to

apply their own prevailing wage rates in

fund its HALE Program, which works with

lieu of the federal ones, DHHL does not

lessees to refinance their loans down to

have this authority. Stakeholders noted

4.5 percent. As a condition of receiving

that the prevailing wage rates are often

NHHBG assistance, lessees participate

higher than market or labor union wage

in financial training. DHHL staff have

rates, increasing the cost of labor. They

counseling experience and provide

argued that this policy increases the cost

direct assistance to lessees. DHHL also

of housing. One Habitat for Humanity

has contracts with five HUD-certified

affiliate also said that the contractors they

counseling agencies to provide financial

use are willing to offer lower labor costs

education and training.

because they are committed to serving the

lower-income population (and can charge

higher rates on major developments), but

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

they are not allowed to do so on federally

and inefficiencies get in the way of serving

funded projects due to the Davis-Bacon

the people and often lead to decisions that

Act requirement. Volunteer labor defrays

are not in the best interest of the people.

the cost, but only for construction, because

This perception is very much linked to

any of the licensed work has to be done

a perception that politics and changing

by licensed contractors at the prevailing

administrations “get in the way of serving

wage. Stakeholders suggested that an

the people.” The appointees in the top

exclusion to Davis-Bacon Act requirements

positions change every 2 to 4 years, which

for projects of a small size (for example,

can change departmental priorities, staff,

fewer than 10 units, minor repairs, less than

policies, and internal processes and create

a specific percentage amount) would be

disruption in programs and services for

helpful. Another suggestion was to exclude

beneficiaries. An alternative proposed

small contractors or allow small contractors

by two service providers was for one or

to make the decision on a project-by-

more community-based organizations or

project basis.

community development corporations

to serve as the equivalent of the TDHE

Stakeholders also noted two other

in Hawaii, because they have strong

challenges related to federal regulations.

connections to the beneficiary base in

First, stakeholders identified the requirement

the community and do not have the same

for federally required environmental reviews,

limitations as a state agency. A small

which are perceived to be burdensome

number of other stakeholders expressed

and the source of major delays in housing

dissatisfaction with DHHL because it has

development. Second, a few stakeholders

not spent down its NHHBG funds enough.

also thought that the method of qualifying

One stakeholder was concerned that the

beneficiaries for NAHASDA assistance based

unspent money sends the wrong message to

on income is not flexible enough because it

Congress by implying that Native Hawaiians

does not allow for adjustments to income.

do not need housing funds.

A few stakeholders said they thought

However, discussions with DHHL indicate

that using DHHL as the administrator of

that there was a period during which

NAHASDA funding is a limitation. Some

spending was delayed due to changes in

stakeholders explained that DHHL limits the

administration and associated staff turnover

eligibility for the grant, because it serves

and that further delays were caused by the

only the population that is 50 percent or

process of coming into compliance with

more Native Hawaiian. One stakeholder

federal regulations required at that time.

said, “The majority of people now are less

than 50 percent and they need housing just

DHHL Funding Limitations

as bad as anybody else.” A suggestion for

changing this was to allow NAHASDA funds

Although it gets some additional funding for

to be used to benefit anyone who is any part

its operations through principal interest on

Native Hawaiian or who self-identifies as

loans, home sales, nonhomestead income-

Native Hawaiian.

generating leases, and its water system,

DHHL is experiencing significant budget

A few stakeholders also mentioned the

cuts from NHHBG and other important

bureaucratic and political nature of state

funding streams. In the President’s Fiscal

agencies as a limitation. These stakeholders

Year (FY) 2016 Budget to Congress, the

have a perception that agency processes

NHHBG budget request was zero; the FY

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

2015 Omnibus Appropriations Bill funded

that DHHL does not need to use or rely on

this program at $9 million. This elimination in

revenue directly or indirectly from general

funding will likely have a significant impact

leases to pay for these expenses. The

on DHHL’s ability to carry out its mission.

Court’s most recent decision, in February

2016, requires the State to fund DHHL’s

DHHL does not always receive an

administrative and operating expenses by

appropriation of general funds from

making sufficient general funds available

the State to cover administrative and

to DHHL for its administrative and

operational expenses. DHHL did secure

operating budget for FY 2015–2016 and to

an appropriation for FY 2013, its first since

prospectively fulfill its constitutional duties

2010 (DHHL, 2014b). Funding for DHHL has

and trust responsibilities. Although it is not

been the subject of a longstanding lawsuit

clear what the legislature and governor

Nelson  v . Hawaiian Homes Commission.52

will do next, they will likely face renewed

In 2007, plaintiffs, beneficiaries of HHCA,

pressure to increase DHHL’s funding.

filed suit against the State of Hawaii and

the Hawaiian Homes Commission for failing

Another major source of funding used to

to adequately fund DHHL as mandated by

develop housing ended in 2015. A $600

the Hawaii constitution. In November 2015,

million land settlement reached with the

the Hawaii Supreme Court concluded that

State in 1995 has been paid to DHHL in

the State failed to meet its constitutional

increments of $30 million per year during

obligation to provide sufficient sums for

the past 20 years. These funds have

the DHHL’s administrative and operating

been used to subsidize the development

budget and ordered the State of Hawaii to

of homesteads and infrastructure on

fulfill its constitutional duty by appropriating

homesteads for families that do not qualify

sufficient general funds to the DHHL for

for assistance under NAHASDA.

its administrative and operating budget so

52  http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Nelson-Case-Summary.pdf.

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Section 7. Conclusions

Section 7. Conclusions

Native Hawaiian population in the state

of Hawaii grew at twice the rate of the

state’s population overall, all the increase

occurred in the group that identified as

Overall, the Native Hawaiian population

Native Hawaiian in combination with another

faces greater levels of disadvantage

race. The pattern of growth for the total

than does the other residents of Hawaii

population across the counties in Hawaii has

population, and HHCA beneficiaries on the

shifted over time in response to policies to

waiting list for homestead leases on the

slow development in Honolulu County.

Hawaiian home lands face even greater

challenges. By contrast, those currently

The Native Hawaiian population tends to be

living on the Hawaiian home lands appear

more disadvantaged than does the residents

to have higher incomes and significantly

of Hawaii population. The Native Hawaiian

lower rates of affordability problems. This

population is younger, with larger shares of

situation could be due in part to the ability

children and smaller shares of seniors than

of financially better-off Hawaiian Homes

is the residents of Hawaii population, and

Commission Act (HHCA) beneficiaries to

Native Hawaiian households are larger than

assume leases more often because they are

residents of Hawaii households. Although

able to obtain the necessary loan and the

improvements were made in the decade

inability of those who are worse off to obtain

from 2000 to 2010, Native Hawaiians

loans, requiring them to stay on the waiting

continue to have lower incomes, higher rates

list. The evidence also suggests the benefits

of means-tested public assistance receipt,

of home lands housing and supports

and higher poverty rates than do residents

continuous and increased NHHBG and other

of Hawaii. Furthermore, Native Hawaiians

funding to support infrastructure, housing

were disproportionately hurt by the Great

development, and housing assistance for

Recession. From 2008 to 2011, the economic

low-income HHCA beneficiaries. This section

conditions for Native Hawaiians worsened

reviews the main descriptive findings on

across all the indicators examined, increasing

the overall Native Hawaiian population and

the burden of their employment, income,

HHCA beneficiaries on the waiting list for a

and poverty challenges.

homestead lease, reviews Native American

Housing Assistance and Self-Determination

Despite housing stock growth that has

Act (NAHASDA)-related policy issues, and

kept pace with the United States overall,

estimates the need for Native Hawaiian

households in Hawaii continue to face a

Housing Block Grant (NHHBG) assistance.

tight rental market and high housing costs.

Within the state, Honolulu County saw

The Native Hawaiian Population in

the least new development, reflecting the

Hawaii

state’s development priorities in these areas.

Vacancy rates among units available for

Recent decades have seen important

permanent residences in Hawaii are similar

changes in the Native Hawaiian population

to rates in the United States overall for

and its distribution across Hawaii.

homeowner units and are lower for rental

Relatively fast growth of the Native

units, suggesting a tighter rental market. The

Hawaiian population and disproportionate

cost of living in Hawaii is high, and residents

growth across counties suggest changing

face high rents and utility costs. Native

socioeconomic profiles and housing

Hawaiians are more burdened by these

needs now and in the future. Although the

issues because they have disproportionately

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Section 7. Conclusions

low incomes. The cost of homeownership

Many (63 percent) renters on the waiting

in Hawaii is high. Although housing is less

list who would prefer to own a home are

expensive on the Hawaiian home lands,

unable to do so, because they cannot afford

it is still not affordable for many HHCA

a downpayment or save enough money for

beneficiaries eligible for NAHASDA, in part

a house. Although the survey sample was

because infrastructure and development

drawn from all waiting list applicants and

costs in some areas of the Hawaiian home

was not limited to NAHASDA-eligible Native

lands are high.

Hawaiians (those at less than 80 percent

of the Area Median Income), the research

It appears that one way Native Hawaiians

team estimated that about one-half of this

have approached these challenges is by

population had incomes that would qualify

having larger households and potentially

for NAHASDA assistance. This study used

more multiple or extended family

this information to conclude that a need

arrangements. Lower personal income

for NAHASDA funds exists to support

may be masked at the household level by

downpayment assistance, credit counseling,

pooling of incomes from multiple household

and homebuyer education and also the

members, leading to overcrowding. This

development of larger homes suited to the

study’s findings on housing problems

household sizes of this population.

support this possibility. The biggest housing

problems experienced by Native Hawaiian

NAHASDA Assistance on the

households were overcrowding and

Hawaiian Home Lands

affordability. Native Hawaiian households

were nearly twice as likely as other residents

Regarding support for Native Hawaiian

of Hawaii households to have problems with

housing under NAHASDA, Hawaii is a

overcrowding and severe overcrowding.

unique case. Although Congress has

repeatedly acknowledged its special

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian

political and trust relationship with the

Home Lands Waiting List

Native Hawaiian community since the

overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii more

Overall, the analyses conducted for this

than a century ago, the federal government

study showed that households on the

does not maintain a formal government-

waiting list for a homestead lease tend to be

to-government relationship with the Native

most demographically similar to Hawaiian

Hawaiian community as an organized,

home lands households, but households on

sovereign entity. Further, no single agency

the waiting list experience the highest rates

in Hawaii is responsible for housing for

of disadvantage and housing problems.

Native Hawaiians, unlike tribally designated

Households on the waiting list have

housing entities (TDHEs) or tribal housing

substantially lower incomes and receive

departments that operate housing programs

public cash assistance at much higher rates

in most American Indian and Alaska

than do households on Hawaiian home lands,  Native communities. The lack of a TDHE or Native Hawaiian households, and residents

TDHE equivalent also limits flexibility and

of Hawaii households. Households on the

autonomy, such as in determination of the

waiting list also experience all types of

State of Hawaii Department of Hawaiian

housing problems at higher rates than do

Home Lands’ (DHHL’s) own prevailing wage

households on Hawaiian home lands, Native

rate rather than the standard Davis-Bacon

Hawaiian households, and residents of Hawaii  Act prevailing wage.

households.

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Section 7. Conclusions

Because NAHASDA assistance for Native

eligibility criteria and supports continuous

Hawaiians through NHHBG is limited to low-

and increased funding to support

income HHCA beneficiary households on

infrastructure, housing development,

the Hawaiian home lands, the assistance is

and housing assistance for low-income

subject to additional eligibility requirements

HHCA beneficiaries. At the same time, the

that limit the program’s reach. As a State

significant housing challenges that all Native

agency and the only recipient of the

Hawaiians in the state face raise the question

NAHASDA funds in Hawaii, DHHL can

of whether NHHBG assistance should be

provide homestead leases and housing

limited to the Hawaiian home lands.

assistance to only those Native Hawaiians

eligible for housing on the Hawaiian home

For context, the research team estimated

lands under the HHCA definition, which

roughly the proportion of the Native

requires that beneficiaries be at least 50

Hawaiian population that could potentially

percent Native Hawaiian. NHHBG currently

be eligible for housing on the Hawaiian home

cannot be used to assist otherwise eligible

lands under current law.

Native Hawaiian families with housing

As shown in exhibit 7.1, the number of

assistance outside the Hawaiian home

households on the waiting list plus the

lands.  Native Hawaiians who are ineligible

number of households already on the

for homestead leases must seek assistance

home lands yields an estimate of 20,500

through housing assistance programs

households eligible for a home lands lease,

serving all residents of Hawaii, like the

or approximately 30 percent of all Native

Housing Choice Voucher program, which has  Hawaiian households in Hawaii.

closed waiting lists throughout the state.

To estimate the number of Native Hawaiian

Estimating the Need for NHHBG

households eligible for NHHBG assistance

Assistance

that are not being supported, the research

team estimates that about half of the 14,350

Native Hawaiians living on the Hawaiian

(or 7,175) households on the DHHL waiting

home lands are better off than other

list have incomes below 80 percent of AMI

Native Hawaiians, particularly regarding

and therefore could qualify for NHHBG

affordability; those on the waiting list

assistance.53 These estimates suggest a need

struggle the most with affordability

to consider ways to expand assistance to

problems. This evidence suggests a clear

more HHCA beneficiaries and also to assist

advantage of housing on the Hawaiian

those not served by the NHHBG.

home lands for those who meet the

53  This estimate is an approximation, because some households reside on the home lands and are also on the waiting list, which may result in an overestimate. This calculation does not include an estimate of households that are eligible for the home lands but did not apply for a lease on the home lands and are not on the waiting list, which may result in an underestimate.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Exhibit 7.1. Native Hawaiian Households Potentially Eligible for NAHASDA Assistance State of

Hawaii

Honolulu

Kauai

Maui County

Kalawao

Hawai  Total

County

County

County

County

Total Native Hawaiian households

69,330

13,957

42,261

3,856

9,221

35

Native Hawaiian alone

22,755

4,917

12,950

1,476

3,385

27

Native Hawaiian multiracial

46,575

9,040

29,311

2,380

5,836

8

Native Hawaiian households on the Hawaiian

6,150

1,305

3,203

490

1,152

home lands

Native Hawaiian alone

3,377

745

1,723

288

621

Native Hawaiian in multiracial

2,773

560

1,480

202

531

Native Hawaiian households on waiting list

14,350

2,986

8,423

782

2,159

Percent of households on Hawaiian home

8.9

9.4

7.6

12.7

12.5

lands—all Native Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian alone

14.8

15.2

13.3

19.5

18.3

Native Hawaiian multiracial

6.0

6.2

5.0

8.5

9.1

Percent of households on waiting list—all Native

20.7

21.4

19.9

20.3

23.4

Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian alone

63.1

60.7

65.00

53.00

63.8

Native Hawaiian multiracial

30.8

33.0

28.7

32.9

37.00

Total potentially served by NAHASDA

29.6

NAHASDA = Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act of 1996.

Notes: Kalawao County population numbers are calculated by subtracting census totals for other counties from the State of Hawaii census numbers. Household counts for the Hawaiian home lands include the 27 most populous home lands, the only ones for which data on the number of Native Hawaiian-headed households were available. Because data are unavailable due to their small size, we cannot include household counts for the remaining 27 inhabited home lands. However, because these home lands are only home to 3 percent of the total home lands population, this issue does not affect our overall conclusions by a significant amount. Waiting list numbers include only applicants for residential homesteads who were deemed eligible for the survey, which excludes those who live on the mainland, have invalid addresses, are deceased, or are applicants who have not yet provided full documentation indicating Native Hawaiian status.

Sources: decennial census 2010 for all population numbers except waiting list; DHHL for waiting list numbers as of 2013 (the time that the sampling frame was defined for the household survey)

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Glossary

Glossary

HHCA beneficiary: A person with a Native

Hawaiian blood quantum of at least 50

percent. Further defined in PL 104-42, the

beneficiary:

term has “the same meaning as is given

See  HHCA beneficiary.

the term native Hawaiian under section

condotel: A privately owned property, with

201(7) of the Hawaiian Homes Commission

generally small units (up to three bedrooms)

Act.” HHCA beneficiaries include both

built in multifamily style that share common

HHCA lessees and those HHCA beneficiary

amenities and a paid third-party management  households that are on the waiting list.

firm that provides services for the property

HHCA lessee: A person who is one of the

in the manner of a hotel (for example,

following.

facilitating short-term rentals, housekeeping,

maintenance). Most major hotel brands have

•  An HHCA beneficiary who has been

entered the condotel market. Villas and

awarded a lease under section 207(a) of

other free-standing residences in the same

the HHCA.

arrangement are often called “fractionals”

(Bradley-Hole, 2007).

•  A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of

25 percent or more) to whom land has

GED: general education development.

been transferred under section 208 of the

General education development tests are

HHCA.

a group of four subject tests which, when

passed, provide certification that the test

•  A Native Hawaiian (blood quantum of 25

taker has achieved American or Canadian

percent or more) successor lessee under

high school-level academic skills.

section 209 of the HHCA.

HALE Program: Established in 2014 by the

homeowners association (HOA): A

Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, this

homeowners association; a corporation

program aids beneficiaries with financial

formed by a real estate developer for the

literacy services. HALE currently offers

purpose of marketing, managing, and selling

two types of services for beneficiaries:

homes and lots in a residential subdivision.

(1) homebuyer education classes and (2)

Ownership of the association is transferred

foreclosure prevention management.  HALE

to the homeowners after selling off a

means “house” in ōlelo Hawai’i.

predetermined number of lots. Membership

in the HOA by a residential buyer is typically

Hawaiian home lands homestead

a condition of purchase.

association: A beneficiary-controlled

organization that represents and serves the

lessee: See  HHCA lessee.

interests of its homestead community and

low-income housing tax credit (LIHTC):

has as a stated purpose the representation

Low-income housing tax credit. Created

of and provision of services to its homestead  by the Tax Reform Act of 1986, the LIHTC

community.

Program gives state and local LIHTC-

Hawaiian Homes Commission Act (HHCA):

allocating agencies the equivalent of nearly

Section 201 of HHCA states that “Native

$8 billion in annual budget authority to issue

Hawai an means any descendant of not less than  tax credits for the acquisition, rehabilitation, one-half part of the blood of the races inhabiting  or new construction of rental housing the Hawai an Islands previous to 1778.”

targeted to lower-income households.

HOUSING NEEDS OF NATIVE HAWAIIANS: A REPORT FROM THE ASSESSMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN, ALASKA NATIVE, AND NATIVE

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Glossary

Native American Housing Assistance and

definition that includes any U.S. citizen

Self-Determination Act (NAHASDA): Native  who descends from the aboriginal people American Housing Assistance and Self-who, before 1778, occupied and exercised

Determination Act. Signed on October 26,

sovereignty in the area that now constitutes

1996, this act replaced myriad programs

the State of Hawaii (U.S. Department of the

that previously had provided housing

Interior, 2015).

assistance to Native American tribes under

the U.S. Housing Act of 1937 with a block

Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant

grant that allowed tribes or their tribally

program (NHHBG): Native Hawaiian

designated housing entities (also called

Housing Block Grant program (authorized

TDHEs) more flexibility to decide whom

by an amendment to NAHASDA) through

to serve, what services to offer, and how

which the HHCA beneficiaries receive

to deliver programs and services. As with

federal housing funds.

the 1937 Act, under NAHASDA, tribes

Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA): A public

are still required to primarily serve low-

agency of the State of Hawaii responsible

income households. The income-eligible

for improving the well-being of Native

population of Native Hawaiian HHCA

Hawaiians; has three overarching objectives:

beneficiaries receives federal housing funds

(1) advocacy to improve the conditions

through the Native Hawaiian Housing Block

of Native Hawaiians in the areas of land,

Grant program, which is authorized by an

culture, economic self-sufficiency, education,

amendment NAHASDA.

governance, and health through research

Native Hawaiian: Individuals who self-

and policy activities; (2) providing resources

identified on the U.S. census as Hawaiian

to support improving conditions for Native

as their only race (termed Native Hawaiian

Hawaiians, including scholarships, loans (for

alone) and those who identified as being

example, business, home improvement and

Native Hawaiian and at least one other race

repair, debt consolidation, and continuing

(termed Native Hawaiian in combination

education), and grants to community-

in the U.S. Census and Native Hawaiian

based organizations that support the focus

multiracial in this report). A lower case “n”

of the strategic plan; and (3) facilitating

(“native Hawaiian) is sometimes used refer

collaboration across the islands to help

to the subset of all Native Hawaiians who

achieve broad, lasting change in the

meet the blood quantum requirements set

Hawaiian community. The agency receives

out in the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act

some funding from the State legislature,

and defined for purposes of eligibility for

but much comes from land revenues (for

homestead leases, as “any descendant of

example, rental of trust lands).

not less than one-half part of the blood of

other family arrangement: A category

the races inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands

defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as male-

previous to 1778.” In this report, the term

or female-headed households without

HHCA beneficiary is used rather than native

children under age 18 (Pettit et al., 2014).

Hawaiian.

residents of Hawaii: In this report, those

Native Hawaiian community: Congress

who live in the state of Hawaii but who do

uses two approaches to defining the Native

not identify as Native Hawaiian. In general

Hawaiian community (see previous glossary

parlance, people who live in Hawaii or who

entry)—the definition that is used in HHCA

come from Hawaii are not all referred to

(and is used in this report) and a broader

as  Hawaiian. The term  Hawaiian is used

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Glossary

to describe members of the ethnic group

tribally designated housing entity

indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands.  Hawaii

(TDHE): Tribally designated housing entity

resident or  islander describes anyone who

designated by each tribe that is responsible

lives in the state (Section 3, Definitions, of

for administering its housing assistance

Senate Bill No. 147, March 2005, sponsored

program that is funded by the federal

by Senator Daniel Akaka).

government.

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List of Acronyms

List of Acronyms

ACS: American Community Survey

AMI: Area Median Income

CDBG: Community Development Block

Grant

CDC: Community Development Corporation

DHHL: Department of Hawaiian Home

Lands

HHCA: Hawaiian Homes Commission Act

HOA: Home Owners Association

HUD: U.S. Department of Housing and

Urban Development.

LIHTC: Low-income housing tax credit

NAHASDA: Native American Housing

Assistance and Self-Determination Act

NHHBG: Native Hawaiian Housing Block

Grant

PUMS: Public Use Microdata Sample

(census).

SNAP: Supplemental Nutrition Assistance

Program, formerly called the Food Stamp

Program.

TANF: Temporary Assistance for Needy

Families.

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U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

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May 2017

Document Outline

- List of Acronyms

- Glossary

- Section 7. Conclusions

- The Native Hawaiian Population in Hawaii

- Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

- NAHASDA Assistance on the Hawaiian Home Lands

- Estimating the Need for NHHBG Assistance

- Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

- Key Findings

- Hawaiian Home Lands Assistance

- Role of the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant and the Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act

- Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

- Key Findings

- Housing Stock

- Vacancy Rate

- Homeownership

- Housing Structure Type

- Housing Age and Size

- Housing Values and Rents

- Housing Problems and Needs: Framework

- Housing Problems and Needs: Quantity

- Housing Problems and Needs: Quality

- Housing Problems and Needs: Price

- Strategies To Deal With Affordability Challenges

- Homelessness

- Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

- Key Findings

- Age Distribution

- Household Size

- Household Type

- Educational Attainment

- Labor Force Characteristics

- Income and Poverty

- How the Native Hawaiian Population Fared in the Great Recession

- Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

- Historical Perspective

- Defining Native Hawaiian

- The Total Native Hawaiian Population

- Hawaii’s Geography

- Population Trends by County

- Mobility

- Section 1. Introduction

- This Report and the Overall Study

- The Structure of This Report

- Executive Summary

- Study Approach and Data Sources

- Key Findings

- Conclusions

- Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

- Key Findings

- The Hawaiian Home Lands Population

- Framing and Sources of Information

- Social and Economic Conditions

- Housing Conditions: Problems and Needs

- Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

- Summarizing Differences Among Groups

Table of Contents

List of Acronyms

Glossary

Section 7. Conclusions

The Native Hawaiian Population in Hawaii

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

NAHASDA Assistance on the Hawaiian Home Lands

Estimating the Need for NHHBG Assistance

Section 6. Housing Policies and Programs

Key Findings

Hawaiian Home Lands Assistance

Role of the Native Hawaiian Housing Block Grant and the Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act

Section 4. Housing Conditions and Needs

Key Findings

Housing Stock

Vacancy Rate

Homeownership

Housing Structure Type

Housing Age and Size

Housing Values and Rents

Housing Problems and Needs: Framework

Housing Problems and Needs: Quantity

Housing Problems and Needs: Quality

Housing Problems and Needs: Price

Strategies To Deal With Affordability Challenges

Homelessness

Section 3. Demographic, Social, and Economic Conditions

Key Findings

Age Distribution

Household Size

Household Type

Educational Attainment

Labor Force Characteristics

Income and Poverty

How the Native Hawaiian Population Fared in the Great Recession

Section 2. Population Growth and Distribution

Historical Perspective

Defining Native Hawaiian

The Total Native Hawaiian Population

Hawaii’s Geography

Population Trends by County

Mobility

Section 1. Introduction

This Report and the Overall Study

The Structure of This Report

Executive Summary

Study Approach and Data Sources

Key Findings

Conclusions

Section 5. Circumstances of Native Hawaiians Residing in Hawaiian Home Lands and on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

Key Findings

The Hawaiian Home Lands Population

Framing and Sources of Information

Social and Economic Conditions

Housing Conditions: Problems and Needs

Native Hawaiians on the Hawaiian Home Lands Waiting List

Summarizing Differences Among Groups